An Argument Against Auteur Theory. - 2750 Words

Auteurism: A Disease of Greatness. The term Auteur seems to bless a privileged group of filmmakers with an almost messiah-like legacy. Men such as Alfred Hitchcock, John Ford and Fritz Lange are believed to inhabit the ranks of the cinematic elite, and not surprisingly most critics are more than willing to bestow upon them the title of Auteur. By regarding filmmaking as yet another form of art, Auteur theory stipulates that a film is the direct result of its directors genius. With the emerging prominence of auteur based criticism in the 1950?s, the role of the director became increasingly integral to a films success. However most would argue that this form of criticism didnt reach its apex until 1960s, when Andrew Sarris released his†¦show more content†¦He merely didnt adhere to a set of criteria which could safely classify his work as art. When asked why he was not respected by American critics, as he is in Europe, Corman responded, Ordinarly there is a great deal of snobbery from American film critics, they will accept a film by Stanley Kramer as a work of art before they see it, or a film from a European director...but they unloose their ire against low or medium budget Hollywood productions3 Considered one of the greatest of all American directors, John Ford would no doubt be regarded an auteur by those who choose to utilize the phrase. One can imagine Ford carefully weaving beautiful images of monument valley, to fulfill his artistic allegories, or demanding the most effective of performances from a cast who manage to convey the emotions which stir inside this most American of auteurs. Just as Corman seems to put a great deal of philosophical thought into crafting what many consider to be simple films, Ford seems to suggest that his cinematic choices are often over-analyzed. In an interview with fellow western film director Burt Kennedy, Ford was asked about some of these choices, which have come to define much of his style, and his answers are surprisingly simplistic. When questioned about his connection to Monument Valley, and the reasoning behind choosing that location, Ford responded I knewShow MoreRelatedAuteur Theory 11662 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"†¦ As f ar as I know, there is no definition of the auteur theory in the English language, that is, by an American or British critic† (Sarris 1962) was the opening line to Andrew Sarris’s famous â€Å"Notes on the Auteur Theory in 1962† essay. This essay is what brought the â€Å"auteur theory† in to the spotlight in the USA. And to today, this theory is still in hot debate. Trying to figure out whether or not the director is the lone â€Å"auteur† of a film is a tough claim to make. In an article for Slate MagazineRead MoreScorsese1744 Words   |  7 PagesUse a range of auteur theories to examine the work of two significant directors you have studied on this module. One director should have produced the majority of their work prior to 1960 and the other should have produced it from the 1970s onwards. Discuss the origins and main developments of auteur theory then examine the works of Howard Hawks and Martin Scorsese with relevance to their status as auteur directors. In having their films examined as auteurs of the cinema, both Howard HawksRead More Auteur Theory: Howard Hawks and Martin Scorsese Essay examples1722 Words   |  7 PagesUse a range of auteur theories to examine the work of two significant directors you have studied on this module. One director should have produced the majority of their work prior to 1960 and the other should have produced it from the 1970s onwards. Discuss the origins and main developments of auteur theory then examine the works of Howard Hawks and Martin Scorsese with relevance to their status as auteur directors. In having their films examined as auteurs of the cinema, both Howard HawksRead MoreProposal for a Animation Dissertation3013 Words   |  13 Pageschapter to Marshall McLuhan’s theories of the postmodern effect of globalisation through the Internet and how new media has changed the face of film and the way practitioners can operate within visual culture. 2. Auteurism – career momentum that outlasts the diminishment of practitioner’s talents. This dissertation would have explored the effect on a director that being branded an auteur can have. The paper would have formed a discussion on how being branded an auteur early in a filmmakers careerRead MoreThe Genre Of Cult Film1741 Words   |  7 Pagescult film, and how it is completely subversive to the high concept films of popular culture. In addition to this, those who construct and encode ideologies and messages into cult films need to know and implement a repertoire of elements that will go against the pleasures of recognition and provide a more sophisticated and untraditional narrative experience. Whether through manipulating time and space, or providing powerful subject matter, it is through these technical and visual codes that the text willRead More Definition Essay - Genre1750 Words   |  7 Pagesremains loose, since Aristotle establishes genre in terms of both convention and historical observation, and defines genre in terms of both convention and purpose. In Anatomy of Criticism (1957) Northrop Frye wrote, We discover that the critical theory of genre is stuck precisely where Aristotle left it. The very word genre sticks out in an English sentence as the unpronounceable and alien thing it is (Frye, 13). It is a French word imported directly into the English language, derived from theRead MoreVoltaire s Candide - Denouncing Providence1503 Words   |  7 Pagesoptimistic philosopher’s theories surrounding providence and human will. His main purpose in Candide was to ridicule a German optimistic philosopher known as Gottfried Leibniz, who stated that God is beneficiary, and we are in the best of all possible worlds, relating to predetermined harmony. Medicinae doctor, Thomas J. Papadimos in Voltaire s Candide, medical students, and mentoring writes that Voltaire wrote Candide â€Å"as an objection to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz s theory that God created the universeRead MoreAnalysis Of Francois Truffaut s The 400 Blows ( 1959 ) A nd Jean Luc Godard s Breathless ( 1960 )2650 Words   |  11 Pagesknown as a pioneer of the French New Wave, and additionally, a significant contributor to the â€Å"auteur† theory – or â€Å"la politique des auteurs†. This was the notion that a good director ought to leave an authorial trace upon the work by implementing his/her personal style and imbuing the frames with his/her unique vision of the finished product (Hayward 467). One valuable illumination concerning this theory is that it urges â€Å"one look to the specifically filmic elements of the work in order to read theRead MoreExploring The Strengths And Weaknesses Of The Term Queer 2598 Words   |  11 Pagesmodern society, the derogatory meaning behind the term has become much less used, and instead has been reclaimed in a positive light to describe the entire LGBT+ community. Coined from this comes ‘‘queer’ Theory’, which effectively reopened the links between gender a nd sexuality. With ‘‘queer’ Theory’ seeking to prove that identities do not determine who we are, with its constant fluidity, the term itself resides amongst previous gay and lesbian studies, but also looks at the sociological influencesRead MorePost Modernism Of Baz Luhrmann s Film Adaptation Of William Shakespeare s Romeo And Juliet3440 Words   |  14 Pageshas played a role in Luhrmann’s version of Romeo and Juliet. Postmodernism has been given many definitions. Some say it’s simply the outlook that the generation of late twenty first century has on life which entails the mistrust and dismissal of theories that existed before such as religion, ethics and law. According to these youths, the difference between right and wrong or what the meaning of life is based solely on that individual’s perspective. In film, the idea of postmodernism is somewhat similar

Study Of Components Of Air Traffic Services - 6055 Words

Internship Report On STUDY OF COMPONENTS OF AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES Submitted to Amity University Uttar Pradesh In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelorof Technology by Utssav Rishi Bhatnagar Under the guidance of Faculty Guides: Industrial guides: Mr. Sachin Rajput Mr. S.R.Mahto DEPARTMENTOF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION AMITY SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY AMITY UNIVERSITY UTTAR PRADESH, NOIDA(U.P.) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I will take this opportunity to thank Amity University for providing me the opportunity of doing research on a topic in the form of an internship. I will also like to thank our Head of Department Dr. M.K. Dutta for his encouragement and support throughout for the successful completion of the project work. I will like thank my assigned facultie Mr. Sachin Rajput for his valuable guidance and support. I would like to express our sincere gratitude to my industrial guide Mr. S.R Mahto .. He has been very kind and helpful to me. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Guides for their help during the course of the project right from selection of the project, their constant encouragement, expert academic and practical guidance. I would also like to thank my parents without them nothing would have been possible. Utssav CERTIFICATE This is toShow MoreRelatedEssay On Shuttle Services980 Words   |  4 PagesShuttle Services in the National Park System In 2016, 330,971,689 visited the fifty-eight national parks, containing over eighty million acres of public land, within the United States for outdoor recreation. (â€Å"Frequently Asked Questions (U.S. National Park Service). With this large influx of visitors, there are some major negative impacts to the delicate ecosystems in each park. After visiting seven of our National Parks and seeing the mass amounts of people and traffic on public lands, I wonderedRead MoreThe Goal Of Effective Airline Scheduling753 Words   |  4 Pages Problem Statement The ultimate goal of effective airline scheduling is to optimize customer service (Wensveen, 2011). In the airline industry, a critical component of the customer experience is related to on-time performance. The ability of an airline to achieve acceptable levels of on-time performance can be significantly impacted by airport capacities because airport capacity is directly link to airport congestion. Delays and congestion directly impact the airlines by increased fuelRead MoreINDUSTRY ANALYSIS Industry analysis is a study in which helps us to understand business and its1100 Words   |  5 PagesINDUSTRY ANALYSIS Industry analysis is a study in which helps us to understand business and its environment like trade and services, manufacturing, etc. Industry analysis gives assistance in investment business decisions, future opportunities by forecasting. The objective reveals the technique industry practices to face their competition and to achieve profits and the factors behind for their success. The assessment of company’s performance for investors in making investing decisions either buyingRead MoreAirline Deregulation1587 Words   |  7 Pagesproductivity, and the public has seen significant decreases in fares. The effects that Airline deregulation has had are generally a positive effect on the industry. This essay examines how further deregulation of the federally controlled and owned air traffic control systems will allow for further growth of the industry in the future. Airline Deregulation In 1978, economic policy experienced a dramatic event that would change the airline industry for decades to come. The United States Airline DeregulationRead MoreWestjet And Air Canada Flights From Prince George2599 Words   |  11 Pagesairlines and the full-service one in managing the flight turnaround time. Thus, this study strives to examine the operational component of the turnaround time of the WestJet and Air Canada flights from Prince George in 2011 in order to explore their similarities and differences. In order to achieve the research aim, this study uses secondary data gathered from various sources, including journal articles, airline’s reports, Prince George airport’s reports, and other relevant. This study has already foundRead MoreIndi The Architecture Of Community956 Words   |  4 Pagesoffers mobility and access to people in accomplishing their daily tasks. Technological advancement and rise in incomes have made people to rely more on private mode of t ransport due to poor services by public transport agencies in India. This rise in the use of private mode of transportation has increased the traffic congestion since the structure of Indian cities are dense and have mixed land use. To address the urban issues like housing, transport system, poverty alleviation in Indian cities, JawaharlalRead MoreCurrent Situation Of The Indian Aviation Sector Essay1480 Words   |  6 Pages Introduction Traffic within South Asia is expected to grow at 9.9% annually over the next 20 years and the Indian aviation sector is expected to be at the forefront of this growth. But the aviation sector while having shown stellar growth rate of 8 – 12 % in the last decade will need some dire reforms to achieve this. Currently the industry is facing several issues which hinder its growth in the form of government policies, regulations and strategies. Like any industry while in its fledgling stateRead MoreDesign Concept : Requirements And Needs1618 Words   |  7 PagesUniversity of the Free State South Africa By: Jurie Swart Serving as a good example with reference to bio-mimicry, latching to existing structures and state of the art laboratory facilities, the theses project Borderline was selected as a case study for the building typology. Linear formed to adapt to its site and merge with the existing column structures juxtaposing and creating a ‘tabula rasa’. Swart (2014) [online]. The layout of the two laboratories with diverse functions form aRead MoreExample Of Positional Data1688 Words   |  7 Pagesdata in the three-dimensional space (latitude, longitude, and altitude) for EWR arrival flights, including all minute-by-minute arrival flight tracks were selected from FAA Aircraft Situation Display to Industry (ASDI) data services. The ASDI information consists of components like flight plans, position reports, flight diversions, and cancellations. The position reports were the updates of aircraft positions every time when the computers were aware of a position amend (i.e. every 12 seconds forRead MoreCase Study Southwest Airlines 20111207 Words   |  5 Pagesï » ¿Case Study – Southwest Airlines 2011 By Dawn Baumann Advanced Marketing Professor Nicole Dillett September 29, 2014 As I develop in mind, body, and spirit, I pledge on my honor that I have not given, received, witnessed nor have knowledge of unauthorized aid on this or any paper. Dawn Baumann Background Summary: Southwest airlines was founded in Texas in 1971 as a small, regional intra-state carrier. They chose to service the Golden Triangle of

Taxation on Australian Resident and Case Laws on Ordinary Income

Question: Discuss about the Residential Test and Case Laws on Ordinary Income. Answer: Residential Test An inhabitant for cost purposes behind existing is at risk to compensation charge on pay from all sources, while non-inhabitants for evaluation outlines are quite recently subject to wage charge in Australia on their wage from Australian sources. There are four tests to make sense of if an individual is an inhabitant for cash charge purposes: in the occasion that they are making responsibilities to a Commonwealth superannuation store, in Australia for more than a substantial segment of the year, have their living arrangement or constant spot of residence Australia, or in the occasion that they tolerate forever or for a huge time in Australia. (Lang, 2014) An association will be seen as an Australian tenant for assessment accumulation purposes if it falls under any of the going with three criteria: joined in Australia, carries on business inside Australia and Australian central organization and control, or carries on business in Australian and it is controlled by Australian inhabitant shareholders. There are diverse issues while considering living course of action in association with the wellspring of wage. Singular exertion pay is resolved where the organizations are performed and for an advantage making activity compensation is the place the assertion is performed. Property wage is resolved where the property is discovered, premium pay where the money is advanced and benefit wage where the paying association is found.(Eccleston, 2015) Impermanent tenants are at risk to a similar capital increases charge (CGT) administers as remote inhabitants. Regardless, there are specific standards where the CGT asset is an offer or right acquired under a laborer offer arrangement and you are, or have been, an impermanent occupant This infers if you are a short tenant, you will be at risk to CGT on CGT events that happen to assessable Australian property. Individual is a transient tenant if he/she: hold a brief visa yielded under the Migration Act 1958 are not an Australian tenant inside the significance of the Social Security Act 1991 try not to have a life partner of an Australian tenant inside the criticalness of the Social Security Act 1991. Further, as per segment 6-5(1) of the ITAA 1997, joins into assessable wage, wage as appeared by typical musings. Wage as exhibited by 'consistent contemplations' is not depicted but rather is thought to be what aggregates to what individuals would traditionally consider to be wage, or which fits inside the perspective based law considered wage.(Barkoczy, 2017) There have been different court decisions on whether a total is compensation and when it is resolved. Once in a while where the courts have picked a total is not typical pay, the courses of action of the ITAA have been amended to unequivocally consolidate into pay the aggregates from that activity. Along these lines aggregates decided in practically identical conditions would be joined into assessable pay by methods for the STATUTORY INCOME courses of action. There is generally thought to be three sections of ordinary wage. Pay from individual exertion (eg. pay and wages) Pay from property (eg. lease, benefits, intrigue) Pay from carrying on a business (eg. Retail bargains, developing) While each of these portions are fused into assessable pay, it is basic to remember them as a couple reasons are penniless whereupon characterization of wage the finding relates to, eg whether a man is carrying on a business. Further according to as indicated by Ruling 92/3, regardless of whether an advantage from a segregated trade is compensation as demonstrated by the normal thoughts and uses of humankind depends particularly on the states of the case. In any case, an advantage from an isolated trade is generally pay when both of the going with segments are accessible: (a) the point or motivation driving the national in going for the exchange to make preference or get; and (b) the exchange was gone into, and the preferred standpoint made over the cross of carrying on a profession or business or in completing a operation of business or business exchange. In the given case, Kit was chosen for occupation in Australia and indicated a simultaneousness with the relationship there. All through the previous four years, wife of Kit has lived in Australia with their two kids. They purchased a home in Australia three years earlier and getting compensation over yonder and having home of three years of age and with some speculation portfolio. Subsequently, according to above arrangements of segment 6-5(1) of the ITAA 1997 and four test arrangements of dwelling test or more temporary exchanges came about that Kit is a short lived tenant and his pay wage and speculation wage is recently subject to CGT in Australia on any points of interest that are assessable Australian property. Case Laws on Ordinary Income Explanations of Californian Copper Syndicate Ltd v Harris (Surveyor of Taxes) (1904) 5 TC 159: For this situation, the Commissioner closes (actually) that each case depends on upon its own specific convictions that is, a weighing up of the factors driving returns, the hypothesis framework, the legitimate archive and the substance of the trade. Reference should in like manner be made to the heading in TR 1992/3 Whether benefits on separated trades are wage. Shockingly this flimsiness in unlikely to be resolved without definitive change. In reality, even where the issue is arraigned, the examination required on a case by case introduce may not give clear decide that apply to all private esteem trades. As requirements be, insecurity may remain for private esteem substances and the risk that the Commissioner may hope to treat increments made on the exchange of advantages as pay augmentations will undermine money related pro and business division assurance.(Saad, 2014) Explanations of Scottish Australian Mining Co Ltd v FC of T (1950) 81 CLR 188 For this situation, the High Court held that the association, by partaking in the subdivision and diverse activities, had just figured out how to make sense of it the range in the most beneficial way, and that the advantage was in this way not assessable. Regardless, the legitimate scene in a general sense balanced after the High Court's decision in the Whitford's Beach case in 1982 which at any rate limited the usage of the Scottish Australian Mining case. Explanations of FCT v Whitfords Beach Pty Ltd 82 ATC 4031 In light of current circumstances, Mason J's earnest judgment appears to revoke the decision in the Scottish Australia Mining case, however the judgment of Gibbs CJ just apparently limits its future application. The degree of the Whitfords Beach decision was in this manner reached out for Stevenson's circumstance where the individual commitment of the national in clearly influencing the sub-division was of earnest criticalness.(Evans, 2015) Explanations of Statham Anor v FC of T 89 ATC 4070 In the given case, the hopefuls' charm against the wage charge constrained for the wage year 1982 must be allowed. The Court makes the going with solicitations: 1.The progress be allowed and the dissent against evaluation dated 25 July 1983 be kept up. 2.The assessment in light of pay induced in the midst of the year completed 30 June 1982 and issued to the competitors by notice dated 31 May 1983 be decreased by the measure of $62,884. 3.The Commissioner pay the applicants' costs of the offer. Explanations of Casimaty v FCT 97 ATC 5135 Ryan J implied the going with remarks of Lockhart J at p 4625 for Crow's circumstance in discussing whether the offer of property was an irrelevant affirmation or an exhibit done in the doing of a business: In accomplishing this view, the trade was not done in an effective way regard was also had to the way that the national did not grasp any work past what was essential to secure the underwriting of the metropolitan forces of the dynamic game plans of subdivision or enhance the introduction of individual packages. That is, in direct many-sided quality to Stevenson's case, the resident did not particularly advance for pending purchasers or manufacture staying houses, internal fencing or distinctive updates that would be normal for a man carrying on business as a region fashioner. Suitably, Ryan J held that the subject had obtained and continued holding "Acton View" fundamentally for private and basic era purposes.(Grubert, 2016) Explanations of Moana Sand Pty Ltd v FC of T 88 ATC 4897 In the given case, the court said for the association here that its arrangement or plan had not advanced to the time when it would have thought about an arrangement. Such a dispute expects, to the point that the association would not have contemplated an arrangement before the departure of the sand slopes. There was no finding to that effect and, given the Tribunal's revelations as to Mr Roche's points, it has all the earmarks of being hard to us to vulnerability that if a buyer had come offering an engaging expense for the territory, early of its being set up for subdivision, the association would have engaged that offer upon its business merits. We think this case is discernable from Kratzmann's case, since offer of the region, yet agreeable with the vital securing, was the fulfillment of an authoritative inspiration driving the association in association with the range. We in this manner expel the free convenience made by direction for the engaging party considering Kratzmann's ca se. In the result they discharge the offer with costs.(Miller, n.d.) Explanations of Crow v FC of T 88 ATC 4620 In the given case, the confirmation here endorses that a business in property progress exists. This demonstrates any advancement of this nature would be in the standard course of this business. The exchange ought not to be looked detachment, yet fairly controlled by the general exercises of the individual. The exchange is not a disconnected business exchange, yet rather an exchange inside the standard course of business. The capital expands charge game plans don't have any kind of effect to allow a capital incident. To the extent that the disaster is a sensible decision, there is a decreasing in the cost base. Explanations of McCurry Anor v FC of T 98 ATC 4487 For this situation, the court Said the inhabitants yielded at all conditions that the favored point of view settled on the offer of unit 1 was assessable. Why this was so has not been cleared up. Regardless, there is in assertion a letter from the accountant for the McCurry family to the Australian Taxation Office dated 8 March 1995, which put forward the case that the desire of Bradley and Brett had been to erect three townhouses upon the Addison Avenue property, to offer unit 1 for ideal position however to use units 2 and 3 as private homes. The clerk consequently surrendered the favored point of view from unit 1 was not assessable. The contention put forward by the accountant did not accord with the affirmation given by Bradley and Brett McCurry in these frameworks and was not sought a large number of. Regardless, that appears to have been the wellspring of the concession that the favored point of view from unit 1 was assessable pay. The ask for of the Court will be that the appl ications are discharged with expenses.(Avi-Yonah, 2015) References Avi-Yonah, R.S., 2015.Advanced introduction to international tax law. Edward Elgar Publishing. Barkoczy, S., 2017. Core tax legislation and study guide.OUP Catalogue. Eccleston, R. and Warren, N., 2015. The devil is in the detail: the distributional consequences of personal income tax sharing in the Australian federation. Evans, C., Minas, J. and Lim, Y., 2015. Taxing personal capital gains in Australia: an alternative way forward. Grubert, H. and Altshuler, R., 2016. Shifting the Burden of Taxation from the Corporate to the Personal Level and Getting the Corporate Tax Rate Down to 15 Percent. Lang, M., 2014.Introduction to the law of double taxation conventions. Linde Verlag GmbH. Miller, A. and Oats, L., 2016.Principles of international taxation. Bloomsbury Publishing. Saad, N., 2014. Tax knowledge, tax complexity and tax compliance: Taxpayers view.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,109, pp.1069-1075.

World Politics an Example by

World Politics THERE is an old saying that goes something like this: It makes a difference whose ox is being gored. The point of this saying is that the same event can look different to different people. It depends upon each ones background and interest in the matter. It is usually easier for a person to be generous and unprejudiced about a problem as long as he is not too closely involved. But what happens if the problem moves into his own backyard, as it were? Then he may be prone to view it in a different light. Need essay sample on "World Politics" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Nations are like people in this respect, except that their attitudes affect millions of persons and the course of world history. As long as a problem does not touch a nation directly, it can be very noble and generous in its outlook. But as soon as the national interest is directly involved, it may quickly change its stance. So it is that two countries can take completely opposite views of the same problem or point of history. However, this does not mean that one (or both) is deliberately lying, though that could be the case. Indeed, they may not even be aware that they are presenting almost totally different interpretations of the same events. A look at a few historical situations will reveal that this is true. It will help readers to appreciate that misunderstandings between nations are almost unavoidable under todays political systems. It also emphasizes how badly all mankind needs a better system of government. The average citizen of the United States is aware of certain facts about Canada, the vast country that lies to his north. But his information may not go much beyond knowing that there are descendants of the British, French and Americans living there, that they see the northern lights, and that the Mounted Police always get their man. If he is old enough he may have heard about the Dionne quintuplets. One of such facts the average American assumes is that for the past two centuries Canadians as a whole have loved Americans. Indeed, he may feel that Canadians would no doubt have been willing to become a part of the United States if the British or Canadian governments would have permitted it. Beyond this knowledge, there are many other things that the US government doesnt know about Canada. However, with the existing relationship within Canada and the US today, it is pretty obvious how the two countries have tried a lot in mending the shortcomings of both governments to each other. Through the International trade, there has been competition between the two, but amidst the economic struggling that happens in the International trade; both countries try to connect the differences they have against each other. Politically, there are still some existing misunderstandings between Canada and the United States. Although this is true, many analysts believe that both governments would be able to make amends with all these issues because of diplomacy and the application of human rights law and other international relationship principles. Indeed it is still undeniable that Political conflicts usually occur between neighboring countries especially with regards to economic struggles. However, if diplomacy is considered, these conflicts could be given way and set aside for some time, for the sake of the bigger public. Question: What are some of the most serious threats to democracy in Latin America today? TODAY, many Third World countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America are impoverished and hindered in countless ways. People in many of these lands accuse their existing governments and local religious leaders of oppression. Others blame their current problems on foreign debt. Today, aside from all the oppression and governments authority abuse as claimed by some Latinos, it is quite sure that the government of Latin America and the society living around it is alarmed in living less democratic lives in the near future. Among the reasons behind this is the Political situation within the territories of the said country. According to Donald B.Schulz in his article The growing threat to democracy in Latin America, he said that Perus troubled electoral processes in the year 2001 indicates the on going threat to the Latin American democracy. Among the main reasons referred to by political analysts is the justice development of Latin America. With the development of the judicial processes and contents of the laws of the Latin American governments, it is quite obvious how the enhanced status of the Latin American laws have directly affected the democracy of the society of the said social section. Certainly, anything that is too much is not good. Even laws which are supposed to secure the human community begin to have less effective ways of protecting the society once it is abused. Indeed, everything should remain in a balanced way especially with regards to social acceptance. Bibliography Stanley Hoffman. (2002). Clash of Globalizations. Council of Foreign Relations Incorporated. Schulz, Donald. (2001). The Growing Threat to Democracy in Latin America. https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-73000542/the-growing-threat-to-democracy-in-latin-america. (October 7, 2006).

The Role of Behavioural Economics in Energy and Climate Policy

Introduction â€Å"Can the insights of behavioural economics help fight climate change?† (Gunther 2009, p. 1). The above statement describes the question most economists have asked themselves as they try to formulate sound policy recommendations regarding energy and climate change.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Behavioural Economics in Energy and Climate Policy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The behavioural economic approach is considered unique to other conventional energy and climate change policies because policymakers usually focus on technology as the premise for formulating useful energy and climate change policies. The focus on technology has birthed many recommendations that propose the need to adopt more environmentally friendly technology such as solar power and wind power. Since the use of environmentally friendly technology has been the focus for economic and environmental debat es, the role of human behaviour in influencing energy and climate change policy has been rarely addressed. Amir (2005) observes that human behaviour can be a very useful tool for influencing energy and climate change policies â€Å"in particular the irrational, emotional, self-defeating, short-term, inconsiderate and plain old silly human behaviour that most of us engage in every day† (Amir 2005, p. 1). Many tenets of human behaviour have interested behavioural economists as they explore different strategies for formulating effective energy policies. For example, the use of incandescent light bulbs instead of CFL light bulbs has been an interesting observation made by such researchers as they explore different human habits that have an impact on energy and climate policy (Reiss and White 2008). Another interesting observation has been the popular focus on commodity prices as opposed to product lifecycle and the purchase of extraordinarily big houses (that consume a lot of ene rgy) as opposed to moderately sized houses which are energy efficient (Gowdy 1998). A recent study by Pollitt (2011) reports that home energy choices and personal lifestyle choices account for close to 40% of the total energy consumption in America alone. Consequently, this study has prompted economists to estimate that within the next decade, focusing on positive behavioural change can lead to a 20% to 30% reduction in energy costs (Pollitt 2011). Due to the unique human behaviours present in today’s society, it is difficult to ignore the impact behavioural economics have on energy and climate policy. Energy and climate policies can, therefore, be improved by focusing on the contributions of positive behavioural economics on energy policies. This paper focuses on exploring the current situation concerning behavioural economics and climate policy. Subsequently, this paper seeks to investigate the potential (or actual) use of appropriate techniques from behavioural economics a nd the impact such a methodology may have on initiating positive behavioural change (viz-a-viz energy and climate policy).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Finally, to be fair to proponents and critics of behavioural economics (as a process of influencing climate and energy policies), this paper will also review the arguments for and against the use of behavioural economics. These analyses will be done sequentially. However, to improve the understanding of the research problem, it is crucial to have a proper conceptual understanding of the research problem. Conceptual Understanding The role of behavioural economics in predicting energy demand and energy efficiency has often been contrasted with insights from neo-classical theorists (Camerer 2004). As explained in earlier sections of this paper, behavioural economics borrows from psychological influences of human behaviour (to explain the power of economics). Neo-classical theorists often propose the view that maximum utility can be realised through exponential discounting (Pollitt 2011). This outcome is often realised when agents have free access to information. Partially, the same outcome is also perceived as a parsimonious model of how economic decisions are made, but empirical research studies have shown that there is a big difference in the outcome of traditional models and behaviour induced models (Gowdy 2007, p. 2). Explicitly, traditional models have tried to explain many things, including the varied reasons for high returns on equity (as opposed to bond returns), why there are many untapped methods for reducing energy demand (through energy-efficient policies) and why people prefer to pursue short-term gains at the expense of long-term gains (O’Donoghue and Rabin 2000). From the weakness of neoclassical economists, behavioural economics has emerged as an alternative way to model decision- making because this alternative model is more congruent with empirical experiments (predicting human behaviour) and it has a higher accuracy when compared to other models founded on neo-classical ideals (Pollitt 2011). Current Approaches Even though there has been a strong appeal to consider behavioural economics as a crucial predictor of energy and climate policies, traditional economists often focused on the impact prices have on consumer behaviour (Hanser 2010). Consequently, many economic and environmental debates have been characterised by how much energy can be saved by increasing the price of environmentally unfriendly goods. Companies and institutions have also embarked on purchasing energy-efficient appliances and machines. The same trend has trickled down to households. However, after comparing the â€Å"price† approach to the previously mentioned influences of behavioural economics on climate and energy policies, it is correct to say that traditional economists hav e reversed the study of behavioural economics to be an aftermath of energy prices as opposed to a precursor to energy prices.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Behavioural Economics in Energy and Climate Policy specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Furthermore, traditionally, economists and psychologists have affirmed that non-pecuniary interventions on energy and climate change policies have often compared favourably to financial interventions aimed at influencing consumer behaviour (Pollitt 2011). Through the same analysis, it has been affirmed that judiciously applied pecuniary interventions have significantly increased the efficiency of financial interventions aimed at influencing consumer behaviour. Consequently, many researchers have had an increased interest to understand the power of behavioural economics on consumer behaviour. Precisely, the increased interests of such researchers have been seen in the current understanding of public health, public finance and public law. Potential (Or Actual) Use of Appropriate Techniques from Behavioural Economics Issues of energy conservation and energy efficiency have featured prominently in many of today’s political and economic debates (Newell and Stavins 2004, p. 79). However, climate change concerns have elevated these issues to the forefront of policy dialogue. In a 2010 report made by the international energy association, it was estimated that close to 35% of the global decrease in carbon emission would be solely attributed to energy efficiency (Pollitt 2011). Consequently, renewed focus on climate talk has been on the manner people use energy and the criteria used to make energy-efficient choices. Undoubtedly, the extent of energy conservation or energy efficiency anticipated in the coming decades largely depends on consumer interventions and behaviour. From this understanding alone, Pollitt (2011) observes that the role of consumer behaviour in making energy choices has generated a keen interest in the development of energy policies and recommendations because consumer choices have a strong impact on energy demand. In addition, consumer behaviours have a strong effect on assessing the effectiveness of energy policy interventions. From this understanding alone, it is correct to say that behavioural economists can offer new perspectives that influence policy design (Pesendorfer 2006). However, even as policymakers ponder on new ways to better formulate energy policies, it should be understood that energy policies do not only revolve around the realms of climate change because other factors such as the security of energy supply and energy affordability also play a vital role in energy policy.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Through this understanding, Gunther (2009) explains that â€Å"Climate policy significantly interacts with both forms of these elements of energy policy via the introduction of expensive and intermittent renewable electricity and heat† (p. 1). From this statement, Gunther (2009) proposes that if energy demand is subject to consumer behaviour, consumer behaviour can be used as a start to induce renewable energy choices. Nonetheless, it is also vital to point out that if issues of energy supply and affordability are ignored, it is going to be difficult to realise the full potential of revised energy policies. De Martino (2006) observes that based on the understanding that the model of extreme rationality has significantly failed to predict (correctly) human behaviour; there is a strong need to introduce a new methodology that correctly predicts human behaviour. Issues of energy demand and climate change are complex activities, which cannot be correctly understood by a simple ap plication of rational behaviour. This understanding sets the ground for replacing the rational actor model by models that incorporate the regularities of human behaviour. This is where behavioural economics sources its strength. Focusing on energy and climate policy, the potential of behavioural economics in mitigating the impact of global warming and decreasing energy demand is only limited by our imagination. To understand this statement, it is essential to think beyond rational choice and optimisation. Economists have in the past failed to offer the right guidance on the ways to limit fossil fuel use, beyond the strategies adopted in market situations. However, as Gowdy (2007) observes, energy and climate issues go beyond this understanding. The reasoning behind this statement stems from the fact that people living in the world today may postpone future environmental gains for lavish short-term gains like driving big cars, living in lavish houses, going for expensive holidays (an d similar lifestyle choices). The environment is left to choke at these choices. Global warming is, however, a complexity of the interaction between environmental well-being and economic production. Therefore, issues such as the increase of prices or the introduction of carbon taxes are mere secondary concerns in the entire debate. However, this statement does not imply that such policies are ineffective; there is only a stronger need to go beyond public policy rhetoric that assigns property rates and raises commodity prices (Gowdy 2007). Here, the perception should be that incentives should not just be prices but a culturally conditioned situation that is characterised by human behaviour. Another plausible argument for weighing the potential of behavioural economics in climate change talk is the criticism levelled against introducing monetary incentives. Relying on assumptions that monetary incentives are likely to show the desired outcomes that positive climate talk seeks to reali se is a flaw (Gowdy 2007). In fact, behavioural studies show that sometimes, the mere mention of money may hinder the realisation of social good (Gowdy 2007). These studies have further affirmed that financial incentives can possible crowd out urges of civic responsibility among individuals. Consequently, it is correct to point out that monetary incentives can discourage the behaviours needed to solve communal problems like climate change or similar socio-economic issues. Therefore, contrary to the policy recommendations advanced by most economists today, purely relying of financial incentives may have a perverse effect on climate change. Arguments for the Use of Behavioural Economics Behavioural economics has shown a lot of potential to the understanding of how we can mitigate the effects of climate change. This potential lies in the uniquely humanistic attribute of realising cooperation across a sea of diversity. For example, human beings can cooperate across cultures, geographica l spaces and generational divides, thereby elevating the human species to be extensively superior to other mammals. Tapping into this potential outlines the advantages that can be realised by adopting behavioural economics. Research outcomes have changed dramatically after the adoption of behavioural economics because behavioural economics has instituted the adoption of experiments to explore different outcomes (Gowdy 2007). For example, as explained in earlier sections of this paper, traditional axioms of human behaviour have been tested by the adoption of behavioural economics and the findings have shown that traditional models fall short of human behavioural outcomes. Consequently, it is untenable for economists to claim that human behaviour is specifically motivated by rational choice. Similarly, it is even more difficult for economists to claim that human behaviour follows the law or any other tenet of rational behaviour (Loewnstein 2004). Behavioural economics bears a strong u nderstanding of how climate change and energy policies can be properly formulated because it touches on the very premise that influences climate change – human behaviour (Shogren and Taylor 2008). Therefore, there is no better basis for understanding energy policies than through the comprehension of human behaviour. For example, the influence of social norms on understanding household economic behaviour has been studied by researchers to explain the influence of behavioural economics on energy consumption (Pollitt 2011). The practicability of such studies has been witnessed through efforts by certain global organisations to change household energy consumption by availing information regarding the consumption of other people as an indicator of the influence of social norms on household energy demands. The results of such studies have been largely successful. In a study done by Nolan (2008) on Californian households in the US, it was established that placing door hangers descri bing various energy conservation messages had a stronger impact on the reduction of energy demand as opposed to placing door hangers, which shared energy conservation tips. The difference in the reduction of energy demand between these two experiments was reported at 10% (Pollitt 2011, p. 12). These findings mirror similar findings by an American company known as OPOWER. OPOWER did an experiment on 600,000 American households where it posted reports showing the differences in energy consumption among neighbourhoods. In the same study, the households were given energy conservation tips. The study included the participation of 23 utilities in the US. Six of these utilities were deemed the largest in the country. After completing the study, it was reported that there was a 1.11% to 2.78% reduction in energy consumption among the households. The reduction in energy demand (cited in the above studies) shows the true effect of behavioural economics on energy conservation and energy demand . These parameters have a stronger impact on mitigating the impact of climate change. Costa and Kahn (2010) did a follow-up study on the OPOWER experiment and found out that the results were heterogeneous among the households included in the study. The true effect of the experiment was, however, seen to be more effective for liberal households that conservative households. Nonetheless, it was evident from the experiments that the true effect of behavioural economics on motivating viable policy alternatives was undisputable. Arguments against the Use of Behavioural Economics Some of the arguments levelled against the use of behavioural economics in influencing energy policies stem from the extent of influence behavioural economics have on energy policy. Some researchers such as Loewenstein and Ubel (2010) observe that it is not right to rely on policy interventions, which are purely based on behavioural economics because the energy savings generated from such interventions are dismal . For example, concerning the OPOWER experiment, Loewenstein and Ubel (2010) observe that it would probably be more beneficial to introduce carbon tax as a measure to reduce the impact of global warming. There have also been some conceptual weaknesses of behavioural economics, which have been identified to strengthen arguments against it. For example, Pollitt (2011) observes that the greatest weakness of behavioural economics literature is its violation of the rational actor model as an â€Å"anomaly†. Researchers explain that the rational mind is often embroiled in a tag of war with the emotive mind (Ostrom 1998, p. 1). Proponents of behavioural economics rely on this view to explain the influence of the methodology on economic issues. However, biologists and neurobiologists oppose this view by explaining that the human brain is a unified system that is characterised by complementary parts as opposed to conflicting parts (Glimcher 2005). Therefore, the â€Å"anomalies† presented above are in fact, what distinguishes human beings from other animals. Interestingly, the rational actor model is deemed appropriate for other animals but not human beings (Arkes 1999, p. 591). Conclusion Effective energy and climate change policies have been very elusive for most policymakers. This paper proposes that, perhaps, the problem has been the ignorance of behavioural economic factors in the entire debate of climate talk. Behavioural economics is shown to be more effective in predicting human behaviour when compared to other models of predicting human behaviour (advanced by neo-classical theories). Based on this strength alone, it has been much easier to adopt behavioural economics when trying to influence climate change positively. This paper cites studies, which have shown that behavioural economics have a positive impact of reducing energy levels among communities. Its accuracy stems from the fact that it correctly predicts human behaviour. However, the stre ngth of behavioural economics in influencing energy and climate policies hail from the fact that the methodology touches on the centre of climate change – human behaviour. Therefore, influencing human behaviour is bound to have a strong effect on influencing positive human behaviour to realise positive environmental outcomes. Going forward, more studies need to be done to ascertain the extent that behavioural economics can have on realising the goal of having an environmentally consciousness society. References Amir, O 2005, ‘Psychology, behavioural economics, and public policy’, Marketing Letters, vol. 16, pp. 443-454. Arkes, H 1999, ‘The sunk cost and concorde effects: Are humans less rational than lower animals?’, Psychological Bulletin, vol. 125, pp. 591-600. Camerer, C 2004, Advances in Behavioural Economics, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Costa, D Kahn, M 2010, Energy Conservation â€Å"Nudges† and Environmentalist Ideology: Evi dence from a Randomized residential electricity Field Experiment, National Bureau of Economics research, Massachusetts. De Martino, B 2006, ‘Frames, Biases, and rational decision-making in the human brain’, Science, vol. 313, pp. 684-687. Glimcher, P 2005, ‘Physiological utility theory and the neuroeconomics of choice’, Games and Economic Behaviour, vol. 52, pp. 213-256. Gowdy, J 1998, Limited Wants, Infinite Means: A Reader on Hunter-Gatherer  Economics and the Environment, Island Press, New York. Gowdy, J 2007, Behavioural Economics and Climate Change Policies. Web. Gunther, M 2009, When Behavioural Economics Meets Climate Change, Guess What’s Coming for Dinner? Web. Hanser, P 2010, ‘On dynamic prices: a clash of beliefs?’, The Electricity Journal, vol. 23 no. 6, pp. 36–38. Loewnstein, G 2004, Out of control: visceral influences on behaviour, Princeton University Press, Princeton. Loewenstein, G Ubel, P 2010, Economics behavi ng badly, Times, New York. Newell, R Stavins, R 2004, The Economics of energy efficiency, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Nolan, J 2008, ‘Normative Social influence is under detected’, Personality and Psychology Bulletin, vol. 34 no. 7, pp. 914-923. O’Donoghue, T Rabin, M 2000, ‘The economics of immediate gratification’, Journal of Behavioural Decision Making, vol. 13 no. 2, pp. 233–250. Ostrom, E 1998, ‘A behavioural approach to the rational choice theory of collective action’, American Political Science Review, vol. 92 no. 1, pp. 1–22. Pesendorfer, W 2006, ‘Behavioural economics comes of age: a review essay on Advances in Behavioural Economics’, Journal of Economic Literature, vol. 44 no. 3, pp. 712–721. Pollitt, M 2011, The Role of Behavioural economics in Energy and Climate policy. Web. Reiss, P White, M 2008, ‘What changes energy consumption? Prices and public preasures’, Journal of Economics, vol. 39 no. 3, pp. 636†663. Shogren, F Taylor, L 2008, ‘On behavioural†environmental economics’, Review of  Environmental Economics and Policy, vol. 2 no. 1, pp. 26†44. This essay on The Role of Behavioural Economics in Energy and Climate Policy was written and submitted by user Kimber A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Free Essays on The Use Of Love In Troilus And Criseyde

Page 1 Scholars of Chaucer agree that Latin poet Dante influenced the former’s writing of Troilus and Criseyde. As Barry Windeatt says, â€Å"Close verbal parallels are relatively few, but there a range of significant parallels in both poets’†¦understanding of love†¦which suggest how Chaucer may have had the example of the Divine Comedy in mind as he worked on his Troilus† (125-6). The extent of Dante’s influence has remained an issue of debate, especially when talking about the closing stanzas of Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde. What exactly do the last six stanzas of Troilus and Criseyde mean? Are they a reference to Dante’s Divine Comedy, and if so, how much of a reference are they? Was Chaucer reiterating Dante’s thoughts on love, or was he mocking them? It is my argument that the narrator of Troilus and Criseyde, while not completely condemning earthly love, ultimately agrees with Dante’s implication in the Divine Comedy that people should focus their attention on the Divine Love of Go! d instead of the earthly love of humans, because it is only through God’s Love that one can reach heaven. My claim will be supported by dividing the paper into two parts. The first part will deal with how Troilus and Criseyde’s narrator is taking the Christian perspective of why humans should look towards God’s Love. The second will deal with how Chaucer deviates from Dante in the fact that the narrator of Troilus and Criseyde doesn’t completely denounce earthly love. My thoughts will be established by focusing on the final six stanzas of Troilus and Criseyde while drawing from other sources I feel are valid, including other sections of Troilus and Criseyde, Dante’s Divine Comedy, other critics’ thoughts, and Chaucer’s biography. Page 2 First I will discuss the issue of Troilus and Criseyde’s narrator ultimately agreeing with Dante’s thoughts of the Divine Comedy, that people should focus their attention on... Free Essays on The Use Of Love In Troilus And Criseyde Free Essays on The Use Of Love In Troilus And Criseyde Page 1 Scholars of Chaucer agree that Latin poet Dante influenced the former’s writing of Troilus and Criseyde. As Barry Windeatt says, â€Å"Close verbal parallels are relatively few, but there a range of significant parallels in both poets’†¦understanding of love†¦which suggest how Chaucer may have had the example of the Divine Comedy in mind as he worked on his Troilus† (125-6). The extent of Dante’s influence has remained an issue of debate, especially when talking about the closing stanzas of Chaucer’s Troilus and Criseyde. What exactly do the last six stanzas of Troilus and Criseyde mean? Are they a reference to Dante’s Divine Comedy, and if so, how much of a reference are they? Was Chaucer reiterating Dante’s thoughts on love, or was he mocking them? It is my argument that the narrator of Troilus and Criseyde, while not completely condemning earthly love, ultimately agrees with Dante’s implication in the Divine Comedy that people should focus their attention on the Divine Love of Go! d instead of the earthly love of humans, because it is only through God’s Love that one can reach heaven. My claim will be supported by dividing the paper into two parts. The first part will deal with how Troilus and Criseyde’s narrator is taking the Christian perspective of why humans should look towards God’s Love. The second will deal with how Chaucer deviates from Dante in the fact that the narrator of Troilus and Criseyde doesn’t completely denounce earthly love. My thoughts will be established by focusing on the final six stanzas of Troilus and Criseyde while drawing from other sources I feel are valid, including other sections of Troilus and Criseyde, Dante’s Divine Comedy, other critics’ thoughts, and Chaucer’s biography. Page 2 First I will discuss the issue of Troilus and Criseyde’s narrator ultimately agreeing with Dante’s thoughts of the Divine Comedy, that people should focus their attention on...

Environmental economics. Article review 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Environmental economics. Article review 4 - Essay Example This was done by monitoring their presence in automobile filters. Furthermore, it is checked using rain water which may contain the isotopes. It has been a great worry to most researchers, scientists and writers at large. Therefore thorough checking in all possible components in the environment that can be contaminated is analyzed. Food is one such an area of major concern to these interested parties (Smith1 et al, 2014). Analysis of the samples suspected to contain heavy metals and isotopes is done using spectroscopy techniques. During analysis of the dangerous rays and substances, safety measures are taken into account to avoid accidents. For instance, shielding against cosmic rays is done. Air sampling is carried out using an air sampler to assist in determination of gamma emitting fission products from the site of occurrence. This is done with high efficiency while observing safety. Filter exchange is also done after a period of about twenty four hours. First findings indicated that Half-life of Iodine isotopes were 8 days for that with atomic number 131 and for that with atomic number of 132 took 2.3 hours. These findings were essential for establishment of a sample gamma spectrum that could give a good visual representation of findings. However, that alone is not sufficient and other sources of samples have to be considered. Therefore automobile air filters come into play. Priority is given to analysis of sample deemed to release radio isotopes that have the capability to harm or affect people. The technique aims at measuring airborne contamination degree (Smith1 et al, 2014). Samples up to about one thousand two hundreds are used to ascertain the level of available radio isotopes. They are estimated using an odometer or through monitoring of fuel consumption of the vehicles. Screening helps the researchers to get alerts of any possible contaminants. This sets the area apart and gives a

Issue in Contemporary Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Issue in Contemporary Management - Essay Example It is difficult for a small organization to effectively manage, control and coordinate between different diverse organizations. Moreover, statutory power given to LOCOG regarding ownership, compensation, and regulation is temporary. In other words, LOCOG has to give up all the infrastructure facilities developed for the London Olympics after the Olympics which will definitely reduce their revenues after the London Olympics. Infrastructure development opportunities are immense as part of conducting London Olympics. Development of infrastructure to world-class level will change the face of London city. LOCOG will receive a share from international Olympics committee’s broadcasting revenue and also from their own marketing efforts. This revenue can be utilized for the economic development and regeneration. Increased employment opportunity is another advantage of conducting Olympics in London. The public will also get an opportunity to know more about different culture which will help to grow the English culture. It is impossible to conduct Olympics without causing some inconvenience to the public. Some of the local businesses needed to be displaced to develop infrastructure for the London Olympics. This displaced business groups may engage in legal battle with LOCOG. Infrastructure development to world class standards is a major challenge. Ensuring value for money and economic benefits to the cost bearing public is another threat to the LOCOG. The public is lavishly extending their support to the Olympics considering a huge return in terms of economic development and infrastructure development. Failure to fulfil the expectations of the public may create problems for LOCOG in future. Stage management and coordination of events are also not an easy task for LOCOG considering its small structure. Propaganda spreading through media is another threat for this event. Many people are spreading the

Reflections on Perception of Reality Essay Example for Free

Reflections on Perception of Reality Essay I have always believed in what I saw, what I heard, and what I experienced. As these elements play a significant role of perceiving the world around me, it is very hard to distrust the reality. However, it was not a long ago that I began to ponder about this issue more profoundly. What do I really perceive? Could I precisely explain our perception without the help of science? As I spend more time thinking about this fascinating issue, I realized that it is necessary to analyze how the nature of perceptual experience relates to reality, and to science. The problems of perception do not only lie on the subject of metaphysics but also on the context of epistemology. Discussing broad philosophical positions about the nature of perceptual experience is the first step to form my own perspective on perception. Identifying and comparing reasonable interpretations and support of various assertions is therefore a key to successfully solidifying my argument. I would like to begin by introducing my ideas on perceiving the world that I am currently living in. In my opinion, my perception towards the world would depend on how to deal with apparently obvious truths about my experience of the world with the possibility of particular types of perceptual errors. Although I make myself open to the reality, this fact of openness is sometimes frightened by the existence of certain illusions. For this reason, philosophical hypothesis of perception needs to respond to this threat by providing an account of perception that preserves central and significant features of perception. Materialism argues that there exists some order of reality that is independent of the human mind, consciousness, and perception. According to materialism, there is a real material world, which consists of matter and energy and obeys some natural laws independent of human mind. As far as I understand, this epistemological materialism argues that logical experience does not contain a theory about what reality is, but rather about how we should treat reality. This epistemological materialism argues that all statements should be meaningful, and that in order to be meaningful a statement should be testable and verifiable, carving away metaphysics. Testable statements must then refer to scientific properties if observers are to agree. Therefore, statements of mind, reflecting internal feelings, thoughts, and motives are meaningless unless they display some physical change or behavior. Materialism seems to offer a simple and efficient perspective on reality, which indeed appears to be in agreement with our experience and observations. Moreover, materialism also seems to be the only metaphysics most consistent with scientific knowledge. But if the materialism was clearly to be true, the world would be without purpose and my life would be absolutely meaningless. Both being a moral human through free will and taking responsibilities for immoral actions would be delusion. This is certainly not the case for all of us. We, as human beings, strive to give meanings and purposes to our lives. Idealism, on the other hand, argues that there is no order of reality independent of human minds and morality. It gives supreme power to minds over other physical values such as body. Material substances would have no existence independent of mind, or while existing, this reality may exhibit human values and morality. It may also be true that reality’s basic nature could be mind in that our apprehension of reality is more determined by mind than matter. Most idealists believe that there is a fundamental unity to the world which is simply greater than the sum of its parts. However, I think that there is a close connection between the existence of our morality and the universe as our values imply something more to the universe than just matter, laws, and physical substances. I might have become the unique outgrowth through physical processes, and my mind could still qualitatively differ. My mind may be self-actualizing while the rest of nature and reality could be still the realm of matter. The reality therefore would be able to contain mind and matter at the same time. I would also like to underline the importance of the nature of knowledge. We need to acknowledge that our sensory knowledge is in fact imperfect as not everyone has exactly the same perceptions and impressions of external reality. We are truly chained to our bodies and could only appreciate certitudes in the privacy of our minds. Hence, I believe that our knowledge and perceptions of reality could never be perfect. Beyond what we could know, reality may still consist of physical interpretations. Constructionism argues that perceptual experiences consist of representations that are constructed by the mind that express external reality. And perceptual experiences both involve objective from the world and subject material supplied by mind. In other words, my perceptual visions are being constructed and my experience contains the representations of that reality. Basically constructionism is the result of compromise between materialism and idealism. As the major focus of constructionism is to unveil the ways in which individuals behave to form the creation of their perceived reality, it involves looking at the ways the world is being created and shaped into reality. For this reason, I believe that reality could be seen as a continuous and dynamic process while it is reproduced by human beings acting on our interpretations and knowledge. My belief is closely in line with this view of constructionism. I think that everyone tends to interpret and construct a reality based on his or her experiences and interactions with circumstances. Although the world outside our minds is considered to be objective and material, it may still be perceived subjectively by us, depending upon different values and morals each one of us holds. The discussion of the nature of reality and its perception, however, does not end here. It is crucial to look at this issue from a different point of view; epistemology dimension. There exist two extreme arguments for describing the nature of knowledge linked to the perceptual experiences. Positive science, which is based on materialism, explains that the only true knowledge one could learn about the nature of reality is primarily dependent on science which provides objective knowledge. But this view does not fully explain the nature of knowledge. Intuitionism, which is based on idealism, asserts that there are different forms of knowledge that the mind has access to. Therefore, no empirical investigation is actually necessary. We could hardly distinguish above two different ideas about the nature of knowledge as they are closely linked to each other. In my opinion, science is used to prove and validate our intuitionism by showing the actual models and data. They both then provide us with a sense of justification for the nature of knowledge. Realizing that there are different philosophical positions about the nature of perceptual experience and its relation to reality, and to science is essential to successfully understanding the nature of reality and knowledge. We have discussed interpretations and critique of the fundamental beliefs that explain the relationship between perception and reality. As we know, it is not easy to simply conclude which theory is the most powerful in explaining such a complicated subject. I believe, however, that the constructionism is the most plausible theory that holds valid argument along with the combination of positive science and intuitionism. How we perceive the reality not only depends on the physical world and materials but also on the experience and morals we retain. Scientific data and methods as well as intuitionism and insight do play a significant role in supporting the conceptual space produced by broad philosophical positions. Because perception is a dynamic dispute between the attempts of the world to impose a reality and our efforts to transform this reality into our own perspective, it is important for us to develop our own perspective gradually. Thus, my initial position towards the nature of reality and science may still change and later shape a new theory as we go through more studies and discussions in the course of psychology.

Corporate Budgeting Systems: Overview and Analysis

Corporate Budgeting Systems: Overview and Analysis Joo Hee Kim Accounting and Financial Management Budgeting is the Process of expressing quantified resource requirements (amount of capital, amount of material, number of people) into time-phased goals and milestones (BusinessDictionary.com, 2017). Budgets help decision makers to identify problems and to increase their understanding of the task environment (Ahrens 1997). For this reason, budgeting is still regarded as an organizational imperative if costs are to be controlled and financial performance to be achieved (Frow, Marginson and Ogden, 2010). The budget has historically entered the central stage of the management control system in most organizations (Otley, 1994). One of the main reasons that big companies get their budgets in the first place is to coordinate different parts of the business. By sharing accurate information publicly and based on a common set of decisions, ensuring harmonious interactions between units can lead to efficient processes, high-quality products, low inventories and satisfied customers (Jensen, 200 1). As such, traditionally, budgeting system has been considered to provide effectively four major benefits to the most organizations. (1) First of all, budgeting system provides the capability for managers to quantify the necessary resources and distribute these to the involved organizations prior to the beginning of the project. (2) Throughout the budget planning activities, the involved organizations will have a better interaction and communication to identify the problems, understand issues, pertaining to the tasks and then, finally allocate the necessary budgets to each organization. (3) Consequently it encourages each organization to conduct their task diligently and efficiently without wasting their resources. (4) Finally, It provides the persistent evaluation how the project performed under the budgeting planned and the great future index for the next budgeting plan. However, under the current increased competitive global environment, requiring more dynamic and imminent resource allocation have raised the concern that the traditional budgeting systems are inefficient and incapable to satisfy dynamically changing environments and suggested the myopic decision making and budget games in which they proposed (Hansen et al., 2003; Ostergren and Stensaker, 2011). Also, Welch has described the unnecessary wage increase due to the misguided performance evaluation, inherited by the incorrect budgeting planned (Welch, 2005). In addition to the inherited slow adaptive functionality and misguided performance evaluation. Jensen has described that the traditional budgeting process wastes time, twists decision making, consuming a huge amount of wasting executives time, due to the intentional false forecasts or manipulating critical information, consequently, twisting the resource allocation (Jensen, 2001; Jensen, 2003). In addition to these human and organizational barriers, genuinely, it takes lots of unnecessary time and resources to create a proper budget, prior to the beginning of the tasks. Statistically, organizations spend 20-30% of their time in the budgeting process. Also, budgeting generally limits the likelihood of achieving high growth or significant cost savings by setting an upper limit of the allowable budgets. At the same time, budgets can hinder high growth because overspending over budget would cut costs in the short term in order to achieve margin goals, consequently, hindering long-term goals (de Waal, Hermkens-Janssen and van de Ven, 2011). Recently, in order to overcome of the issues in the traditional budgeting system described above, a number of alternative methodologies have been proposed for the budgeting process, including activity-based budgeting, profit planning, rolling budgets and forecasts, zero-based budgeting, and beyond budgeting (Hansen, Otley and Stede, 2003). In particular, Jensen proposed a A Linear Compensation Plan to remedy the current budgeting process in which actual performance, regardless of budgetary goals, will be utilized to provide senior executives unbiased estimates for the planned achievable goal. However, later, Jensen described that it can be problematical for organizations to simply adopt or implement the proposed linear compensation system. It is because Target-based bonuses are deeply ingrained in the minds of managers and in the managerial codes of most organizations. More than that, if the measures and evaluation were not correctly performed, executives will have the more risk of distorting managerial decisions, even under a linear bonus system. In addition, the positioning and slope of the bonus line are based on the prior years performance. Of course, it would reduce the risk of overcompensating for the performance, but it can cause the reduction of incentives for the increasing performance, which results in dropping the motivational effects of the performance targets. Also, the increased performance compensation would require companies to increase bonus caps way beyond traditional compensational levels, which can make organizations discomfort (Jensen, 2001). In addition, more difficulties have described that the cost of changing the current budgeting process can be high due to the initial cost to implement the new system which requires the staffing time change, strategic planning, resource allocation, cost management (Neely, Sutcliff and Heyns, 2002), and eventually results in impacting on other unrecognized management processes, due to the lack of understanding of the current and future adopted systems (Waal, Jap Tjoen San and Zwanenburg, 2006). To overcome the raised issues on the linear compensation schemes, the curvilinear schedule methodology has been proposed which actually, reintroduces a strong incentive in terms of the budget. Jensen has also later agreed that the budget process itself is not the root cause of unproductive behavior. Rather, determining the compensation should combine the budget goals to have proper performance measurements. He has also point out that performance indicators should reflect the functionality of other business units, to align with the departmental performance measures. Management flexibility, decentralization and delegation can also minimize the risk of measuring performance (Jensen, 2001). Jensen criticizes managers for damaging their business because they lie to get more incentives. But currently, companies do not set incentives based only on manager reporting. Annual bonuses can be organized into three basic components: performance measurement, performance standards, and the sensitivity of the pay-for-performance relationship. Most companies rely on two or more measures of performance when evaluating manager performance, such as sales or revenue, earnings per share, operating profit or profit (Towers Perrin, 2005). Historically, accounting-based performance indicators are backward-looking and easy to lie, so firms can avoid cheating by using other measures such as operational or strategic performance goals, quality improvement, and scorecard-based systems. If managers were still cheating as Jansen criticized, the incentive system would not have spread like it does today. In recent, the percentage of SP 500 firms using multiyear accounting-based performance (MAP) incentives for CEOs increased from 16.5% in 1996 to 43.3% in 2008 (Li and Wang, 2016). There are many good reasons to explain why long-term incentives are an effective wage component. First, it provides the most direct correlation between company performance and wages. In other words, incentives can motivate directors to work hard and help them make shareholderoriented decisions. Second, long-term incentives can provide valuable human capital to the board and increase the loyalty of incumbent directors (Irani and Gerayeli, 2017). Furthermore, there is a way to hire a compensation consultant company to get rid of the possibility of any remaining lie. Compensation consultants such as Towers Watson, the Hay Group, and Hewitt Associates can assist the board in setting up wages with knowledge of industry and other peer groups compensation package design. In particular, they can give advice and assistance to the compensation committee (Bender, 2007). In the UK, virtually all companies show that they hire compensation consultants (Conyon, Fernandes, Ferreira, Matos and Murphy, 2011). The existence of an independent board is also important in the process of receiving incentives. Directors must have sufficient pay-performance sensitivity (PPS) for managers (Bruce, Buck and Main, 2005). Jensen insisted Corporate budgeting is a joke. and Corporate budgeting consumes a huge amount of executives time. But I disagree with him. Therefore, I strongly believe that instead of simply tossing off the budgeting process, the efficient budgeting system, combined with a proper performance measurements to determine the correct compensation, is necessary and essential for the company to achieve their goals in a rapidly changing 21st century international economic environment. In particular, from the Abogun and Fagbemis research, budgeting is still selected as a most effective and necessary tool for planning, controlling, communicating, making decisions and creating value (Abogun and Fagbemi, 2011). For instance, on the survey conducted by Libby and Lindsay, most managers have rated the budgeting as good value to achieve their organizational goals, regardless of budget games occurred to some extent in the organization (Libby and Lindsay, 2013). They have also agreed that the right u se of budgeting is of significant value to management. As an additional valuable evidence of the budgeting system, more than 150 organizations in North America uses frequently cost management tool to budget resources that can include everything from raw materials to human resources and facilities (Horngren, Sundem, Stratton, Burgstahler Schatzberg, 2008). In the same opinion, at a meeting on the traditional role of the budget in the organization organized by CIMA and ICAEW in 2004, the budgeting and accompanying process were indispensable and also noted that the traditional budgeting processing was widespread. Significant number of European companies has a budget and continues to use this process (CIMA-ICAEW, 2004). Most of current companies in Australia, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States prepare budgets (Anand, Sahay and Saha, 2004). Is corporate budgeting really just a waste of time, as Jansen argues? If his argument was correct, now that more than 15 years ago, many companies would have to abandon the budgeting system. However, since the economic crisis that started in 2008, the survey and historical data have showed that the budget became more important in planning and resource allocation and companies emphasize specific budgeting features over other companies in response to economic crises (Becker, Mahlendorf, Schà ¤ffer and Thaten, 2016). In Case Study Evidence (Frow et al., 2010), the paper introduces the concept of continuous budgeting to emphasize how an organization can coordinate these potentially conflicting goals. By integrating the use of other budgetary controls with other management controls, the process of continuous budgeting encouraged management to exercise operational discretion when unexpected events occur in which it has placed a strict burden on managers to ensure that they continue to str ive to achieve their financial goals. Again, it has proved that Budgeting effectively contributes to the flexibility and financial principles to implement effective strategies. Therefore, its the right path to adopt alternative budgeting process rather than giving up entirely the budget. For example, continuous budgeting or traditional budgets can be supplemented by other management controls such as Balanced Scorecard (Frow et al., 2010) or Rolling Forecast (sandalgaard, 2012). For other management controls, according to a study by Choe, Dey and Mishra (2014), analyzing diversified companies in Australia by 2004-2008, companies that rely on long-term incentives for executives have achieved even greater progress. Long-term compensation consists of options, equity and other long-term incentive payments. Most of these compensation factors are based on company-wide performance. On the other hand, short-term rewards mainly consist of salaries and bonuses. In some cases, bonuses are targeted at company-wide performance, especially CEOs. For department managers, bonuses are often based on departmental accounting performance. Therefore, we need to develop some compromise schemes to set an upper bound of compensation, for instance, using the all department compensation difference and same time setup the ratio of long-term compensation and the short-term compensation ratio depending on the nature, scale, and profit of the company. Of course, as mentioned before, this compensation system depends on the previous years data to setup the compensation plan for the future potential growth. It may also be a necessary to evaluate company financial system regularly auditing from an independent accounting company that is not related to the companys incentive system. Corporate budgeting is like a knife. Knife would be a weapon when it is caught in the hands of robber, but it can serve as a tool for making delicious food in the hands of a cook, and it can save people when it is in the hands of a doctor. As Jensen argues, when corporate budgeting lefts in the hands of immoral managers, it is easy to become a weapon that damages the company for the benefit of the individual. But if a conscientious manager catches it, it becomes a tool for creating a happy company. If a wise CEO control it, it can also play a role in saving the company. Hence, I strongly believe that we should move toward improving the budget system by incorporating various suggestions described above. Question 2. Typical Executive Compensation Plan in a traditional pay-for-performance compensation plan, managers receive a hurdle bonus when they reach a certain level. The bonus will be improved until the maximum challenge is reached. When managers have a good year and performance is nearing the budget limit, there can be a desire to push the remaining profits into the future. Because they do not receive additional compensation even if they performance exceeds the cap, they will increase their chances of raising their expenses in current year or postpone their sale and gain to next year, in order to increase bonus next year. Suppose there is the organization named ABC, which has fiscal year end December 31 and Fiscal year 2016 budget goal for research expense is $100,000 and service contract revenue is $500,000. Fiscal year 2017 budget will be the same. Currently, ABC financial reports for fiscal year 2016 shows that research expense is $20,000 and service contract revenue is $500,000. ABC research department received a request from a research engineer to purchase $50,000 equipment for beginning of January 2017 and ABC sales department expects to sign on a two months service contract with a client amount of $200,000 in December 2016, but start date could be either December 2016 or January 2017. Because of timing issue of recording expenses and revenues, the managers are able to meet budgetary targets for 2016 and 2017, if they plan to expense more in current year and record revenues in the next fiscal year. The research department manager could record $50,000 equipment expenses for Fiscal year 2016 askin g a vendor to deliver the equipment and send out the bills to accounting departments few days earlier before January 1, 2017, unnecessarily, because research expense for the year 2016 already met budget goal, which means research manager still can get bonus for the year 2016 even though the research department recognizes $50,000 more expense in 2016. By doing so, the research department probably will exceed budgetary expense targets in 2017, because the department lower actual 2017 expense by $50,000. Also, sales manager could push revenue to the next fiscal year, by choosing the two months service contract start date as 1/1/17, instead of 12/1/16, because FY16 sales budget goal is already achieved. Even if the company ABC financial statement for FY16 can show more revenues if the service contract starts on 12/1/16, sales manager could take 1/1/17 start date, considering his FY16 bonus is guaranteed already, and it would be easier for him to achieve FY17 sales goal since he already achieved $200,000 out of $500,000. It is highly unlikely that any refinements to the budgeting process will ever enable budgets to be perfect because budget is plan for future. However, I think few refinements to the budget plan can prevent Jensons business scenario from real business world. First, senior management can set up their budget comparison method by adopting advanced IT budget system. In Jensons scenario, senior management set the budgets with limited input from line personnel. Because of limited input from same personnel, the budget could be manipulated for the purpose of getting more bonuses. If senior management set up IT budget system, such as uBase and add the procedure to their budget report review procedures, comparing generated report out of uBase to the prepared budget report by limited personnel, and researching the variances between two reports and fluctuation between months, senior management might identify what are the most common unfaithful ways used for management to consistently exceed finan cial targets. Second, the organization uses an incremental budgeting system for a full year. If an organization changes budget period from a full year to half year, and change distributing bonus from annual basis to semi-annual basis, the organization can reduce a lot of cut off issues management used to exceed financial targets. To avoid connecting budgets and sales goals to bonus, Jensen proposed Linear Compensation Plan is an incentive system that compensates for actual performance regardless of your budget goals. Administrators will receive the same bonus for some level of performance even if the budget target is set below or above that level. By eliminating kinks, the unit manager no longer collects cash beyond the target and would not need to make lower the target by putting false information into the budgeting process. As a result, senior management receives unbiased estimates of what they can achieve in the future, and the quality of planning and coordination is significantly improved. In order for Jensens proposed linear compensation scheme to be successful, we need to obtain the following refinements: First, when using multiple performance indicators for individual managers, companies must carefully set up a single, well-defined measure of overall business success, such as economic value added. Ratios such as sales margins or asset returns inevitably result in games. Second, management tends to concentrate in the short term. If you earn a high bonus within a year, it will be harder to get a higher bonus next year, so you will lose incentives to improve performance. A better way is to look at the future in more detail by setting a line of bonuses over the years based on long-term forecasts of growth and profitability. Finally, define the upper limit of compensation as a salary. Also, we need to set absolute objective criteria such as activity-based costing to determine performance by how many tasks have been done in certain time, rather than how many hours an employee worked. Question 1. (1) Answer is d. (2) If Sanjay Ltd sells all 1000 units, it needs not pay for scraping costs, so the minimum price is $ 2. But if it cannot sell all of them, it has to add $ 500 to its sales because it shoud pay for scraping costs. For example, if it sells 100 units, $ 5 is added per unit, so the minimum price is $ 7. However, if it sell 500 units, it will add $ 1 per unit, so the minimum price is $ 3. In the worst case, if Sanjay Ltd cannot sell any units, its better to give them away for free. (3) Total cost = DM(Direct materials) + DL(Direct labour) + OH(Overhead) $25,000 = $20,000 + DL + 1.5 DL $5,000 = DL + 1.5 DL = 2.5 DL DL = $2,000, $25,000 = $20,000 + $2,000 + Overhead As the result, Overhead is $3,000. (4) Total costs = Direct material + Direct labour + Overhead = $1,475 + $1,500 + {50(labour hour=$1,500/$30) $35} = $1,475 + $1,500 + $1,750 = $4,700 As the result, Total costs is $4,700. (5) Profits = Total sales Fixed costs Variable costs Profits ($100,00) = Total sales(Selling price 500,000) Fixed costs($400,000) Variable costs(0.75 Selling price 500,000) $100,000 = Selling price 500,000 400,000 0.75 Selling price 500,000 $500,000 = 0.25 Selling price 500,000 $500,000 = 125,000 Selling price As the result, Selling price should be $4. (6) Total Manufacturing Costs ($ 900) = Direct Materials ($ 455) + Direct Labor ($ 300) + Variable Manufacturing Overhead ($ 45) + Fixed Manufacturing Overhead ($100) Target Sales Price ($ 1440) = Total Manufacturing Costs ($ 900) + {Total Manufacturing Costs ($ 900) Mark Up 60% ($ 540)} It does not need to pay Fixed Manufacturing Overhead if Diamond Interiors accepts Mr. John Lees one-time only special order, because of Diamond Interiors has an excess capacity. In this case, Fixed Manufacturing Overhead should be excluded when calculating Total Manufacturing Costs. But Mr. Lee wants the cabinet in a metallic finish rather than laminate, so direct materials will increase by $30 per unit. Total Manufacturing Costs ($ 900) Fixed Manufacturing Overhead ($100) + additional direct materials ($30) = 830 Therefore, the minimum selling price is $830. (However, this minimum selling price did not include the mark up fee. Therefore, the actual selling price may vary depending on the sellers decision.) (7) The net present value (NPV) is the difference between the present value of the cash inflow and the present value of the cash outflow. NPV is used in capital budgeting to analyze the expected investment or profitability of the project.The following is the formula for calculating NPV: where Ct = net cash inflow during the period t Co = total initial investment costs r = discount rate, and t = number of time periods {20,000/1.1 + 25,000/(1.1)2 + 30,000/(1.1)3 +15,000/(1.1)4 + 12,000/(1.1)5 } 75000 = {18181.8 + 20661.2 + 22539.4 + 10245.2 + 7451.1} 75000 = 79078.7 75000 Net Present Value of the computer system is $ 4078.7 A positive net present value indicates that the projected income generated by the project or investment (in present dollars) exceeds the projected cost (also in present dollars). In general, investment with a positive NPV is a profitable investment, and investment with a negative NPV is a net loss. It is the basic element of the net investment value rule that a project or investment must be performed only if the NPV value is positive. Since the NPV of the computer program in question is positive, it is a wise choice for the mayor to purchase this computer program. (8) The cost of equipment is the items purchase price. Knowing the internal rate of return and the expected life of the equipment, the cost of equipment purchase can be calculated using the following formula. 15,000/1.12 + 15,000/(1.12)2 + 15,000/(1.12)3 + 15,000/(1.12)4 + 15,000(1.12)5 = 54071.7 As the result, Cost of the equipment is $ 54,071.7 (9) Return on investment is a simple rate of return without a concept of time. The IRR is calculated by compounding the time it takes to enter a profitable point. There is a limit to the evaluation by simple profit rate calculation that does not consider time. Internal rate of return (IRR) is the interest rate at which the net present value of all the cash flows (both positive and negative) from a project or investment equal zero. Internal rate of return is used to evaluate the attractiveness of a project or investment. If the IRR of a new project exceeds a companys required rate of return, that project is desirable. If IRR falls below the required rate of return, the project should be rejected (Investinganswers.com, 2017). When a minimum desired rate of return is 12%, the present value of project is calculated as $ 1,646. Because the IRR is positive, Imperial Airways Ltd. should accept this project. 75000/1.12 + 75000/(1.12)2 + 75000/(1.12)3 + 75000/(1.12)4 + 75000/(1.12)5 + 75000/(1.12)6 280000 50000/(1.12) 4 + 10000/(1.12)6 = 308355.6 280000 31776 + 5066.3 = 1645.9 As the result, Present Value of the Project is $ 1,646. When a minimum desired rate of return is 12%, the present value of project is over than zero (calculated as $ 1,646). Thus, the internal rate of return is more than 12%. (10) Year1 Inflow1 + Year2 Inflow + Year3 inflow = $22,000 Inflows from Year1 to Year 4 = $28,000 The payback period is between Year 3 and Year 4. Accurately calculated PBP = minimum period + shortage of inflows / inflows in event = 3 + 3000 / 6000 = 3.5 As a result, payback period is 3.5 years. REFERENCE Abogun, S. and Fagbemi, T. (2011). The Global Debate on Budgeting: Empirical Evidence from Nigeria. International Business Research, 4(4). Ahrens T. (1997). Strategic interventions of management accountants: everyday practice of British and German brewers The European Accounting Review 6(4), 557-588 Anand, M., Sahay, B.S. and Saha, S., 2004. Cost management practices in India: An empirical study. ASCI Journal of Management, 33(1-2), pp.1-13. Becker, S. D., Mahlendorf, M. D., Schà ¤ffer, U. and Thaten, M., 2016. Budgeting in times of economic crisis. Contemporary Accounting Research, 33 (4), pp.1489-1517. Bruce, A., Buck, T. and Main, B.G., 2005. 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Reflective Essay: Grief and Bereavement Reflective Essay: Grief and Bereavement This essay is a reflective journey through the loss I have experienced in my life. The essay will discuss two models of bereavement, dual process and continuing bonds. Towards not only understanding self in the process of loss, but also to understand some of the theories used to assist those who are grieving. Relevant referenced literature will be used to demonstrate understanding of the models of loss chosen for the assessment. The loss that has impacted my world most recently began with the wonderful knowledge of pregnancy. That beautiful piece of news set in motion a series of events beginning with the primary loss of membership within a band, which I had created and maintained for six years. The band was a manifestation of hopes, dreams and realisations I had carried since childhood and finally began actualising in my early thirties. The secondary losses were simple I thought, as in losing the social network associated with being a band member, and the loss of a portion of identity. However, a major friendship was also lost in the process and this in reality lay far deeper than the apparent primary loss. This friend and fellow band member M was actually my x partner and soul mate, with who I had shared my life and musical experiences from the age of nineteen. Even though we had separated as partners we were still very close as friends and involved musically. I had lost my x, my best friend, my band membe r, fellow song writer, and pain in the butt. I acknowledge that adjusting to motherhood and the happiness of my new family life overshadowed the losses I was experiencing, and also my resilience, spirituality and being quite differentiated contributed to my ability to cope, move forward and adjust to yet another segment of my very interesting, challenging and rewarding life. Attachment and meaning, family systems, social support, cognitive process in adjustment and coping, are all factors and terms associated with the theories of loss and bereavement which have preceded and assisted Stroebe and Schut (2007) to generate the dual process model. Their model perceives a person oscillating between loss-orientation and restoration-orientation. Loss-orientation deals with the process of having a good cry and experiencing and dealing with the emotion of loss, and restoration-orientation deals with getting oneself back into feeling okay to proceed with life emotionally, physically and psychologically. Within this process of oscillation it is important to understand the need for both negative and positive thought processes within both loss and restoration. Furthermore it is important that one experiences and adjusts to both aspects of thought processes in life, even when it appears that loss is not perhaps a prominent focal point. Stroebe and Schut (2004) discuss how attachment theory plays a role within the dual process model, by aligning loss-orientation with the experience associated through loss of a relationship where the bond of attachment is deep. Secondly their restoration-orientation process can align with cognitive stress theory by making use of tasks or coping strategies to assist a grieving person to find balance in their process of loss. The strength of the dual process model as Stroebe and Schut (2004b) explain is the ability to understand that people fluctuate between positive and negative thoughts and emotions. Additionally by applying certain aspects of cognition tools and the understanding of attachment, a balance between the swaying emotions and thoughts can be normalised and processed in a comfortable and personal manner as adaption takes place. In my experience of grief I certainly experienced the swapping of emotional positions such as sadness that our friendship had ceased, and feeling okay that M wanted to disconnect. I am able to reflect with both sadness and joy, when I ponder our shared love and experiences. However I also take great strength from my husband and son, my parents and siblings in an almost unconscious process of living and loving. Continuing bonds resonated with me in that it recognised attachment bonds dont disappear when one experiences loss or death, instead the connection and bonds change and continue. Klass and Walter (2004) explain continuing bonds as recognition that the human condition in both life and death is far more complex and unique than many theorists previously had argued. In addition research discovered that many diverse people carried on conversations and relationships with the dead. Klass, Silverman, Nickman (1996) relate that continuing bonds means that those left behind feel a real sense of the person they have lost, either unconsciously or on a conscious level, therefore their changed relationship with the deceased is a continuous process of adjustment. It is now realised people dont get over a loss of a loved one, they continue to have an internal relationship or tell stories to keep their meaning alive. From what I have understood of continuing bonds dealing with grief, is simply not a s simple as getting over a loss, but a process of mourning, grieving, adjusting and changing. Packman, Horsley, Davies Kramer (2006) cite Hogan and DeSantis who refer to attachment in connection with continuing bonds such as reaffirming relationships, search for understanding, checking in with deceased, reconnecting, asking for guidance, and seeking to meet again, it seems the process demonstrates once more that attachment and love does not cease with the death or loss of our loved ones. Nadeau (2007) discusses continuing bonds around how families make meaning via conversations and shared feelings through storytelling, family conversation or verbalising experiences of the person who has died. In addition to dreaming, comparing and experiencing interpretations of personality, joining or linking of events or perhaps considering fatalistic observations, through which these processes assist a person to deal and adjust to the loss and life without the physical presence of their loved one. It almost seems ridiculous in my mind to consider those Ive lost in life as being completely gone just because they died or have disconnected their friendship. In my personal culture of beliefs, values, and spirituality, death is but a single part of an enormous cycle where as human beings we experience the physical plane of existence, which is only a fraction of our total cycle of being and knowing. The process of writing this assessment has made me consider exactly what losses I have experienced. I began by making a time line of losses, and realised that through death I had lost four grandparents, friends, one x mother-in-law, and one current mother-in-law, nine cats, one bird, and one dog. The losses consisted of my heart at least three times, contact with aunts and uncles, and my cousins, jobs, dreams, my band, friends, even my respect at certain times, and the most significant friendship of my life prior to meeting my husband and my baby. Through contemplating my losses I can identify with certain aspects of poor self-esteem that has occurred in my life, and understand how feeling unworthy of certain considerations from friends is mixed in with the manner in which I handle loss in general. Being strong inside even though I feel alone is part of the coping mechanism loss in my life has taught me. For me being differentiated and resilient are the real keys to handling lifes my riad of experiences. Walsh (2006) suggests that beliefs and values build our cultural and family historical story that in turn builds resilience, which is strongly tied in with ones spiritual beliefs and life meaning. Weiten, Lloyd, Dunn, Hammer (2009) cite Gallagher and Chase who suggest that children benefit immensely from having their sense of resilience strengthened and nurtured by cherishing close relationships between children and parents. Resilience can help with the development of coping strategies, for example how to release anger, or help children be able to differentiate between risk assessment of traumatic event and management of possible danger. Furthermore the importance of relating and sharing of values and beliefs, not only in self, but also in a wider social arena, and encourage the ability to see and endeavour towards a positive future. My sense of myself as a differentiated and resilient person has also been a driving force behind my search of spiritual answers outside my birth religion. I live my life through my sense of spiritual knowing, which I align with the Buddhist concept of dharma, reincarnation and karma. My foundation of spirituality and knowing in God as my belief and value system is how I function through lifes loves and losses. I now understand how positive functioning is interconnected with a sense of differentiation. Corey (2009) discusses, differentiation is the process of becoming an individual with a positive sense of separateness from family of origin, able to live life with an ability to accept responsibility for ones own emotions, thoughts, feelings, perceptions and behaviour. I am truly thankful for the two strengths of resilience and differentiation, as in whenever I feel alone in my experiencing of loss, be it as simple as feeling I have no one to talk to, I can draw from inside myself the strength to escape negative emotional spirals. I also have an immense sense of connection to a higher spirit and find great comfort in lifes meaning and feeling of universal love. Since life, love, death, loss and grief all are experienced, affected, and expressed, in highly individual styles and approaches it seems logical there should be different methods and theories attached to grief and loss counselling. Therefore when I look at the two models of dual process and continuing bonds, I feel it important to understand attachment in life and loss. Machin (2009) discusses that the sense of self and independence is born out of the relationships of attachment we experience across our lifespan. These attachments are what allow a person to develop resources such as coping mechanisms, resilience, and the predisposition towards either positive or negative outlooks on life as well as death and loss. Sigelman and Rider (2009) refer to Bowlbys theory of attachment, concerning how a person copes through lifes challenges and stages, which can depend a great deal on the style of attachment they have developed, such as securely attached opposed to avoidant or resistant atta chment. These attachment styles play out through life in the manner of relationships beginning with family relationships, meaningful friendships, and marriage relationships, a person experiences through life and through their losses. Sigelman and Rider (2009b) cite Parkes who in conjunction with Bowlby constructed their theory of attachment model of bereavement, based on the simple fact that loss and love are counterparts that cannot be separated. Furthermore our interpersonal connections are built through attachment and centred on the conveying and sharing of love. Machin (2009b) also considers that attachment styles are also impacted through family culture, especially in how a person is taught the norms, values and beliefs surrounding appropriate mourning and grief, and life and love. As I reflect on how I seek and find support around my loosing M as a close friend, the cultural influence and norm my family advocates, is that of behaving as if nothing has changed. Almost like sayi ng, what are you worried about, and ignoring any deep feelings that need sharing to complete the cycle of grief. In relation to attachment within my family history I would say I have learnt secure attachment as a child, but as I grew my sense of attachment to my parents and siblings had a feeling of separateness, which funnily enough I feel was the grounding for my sense of differentiation and resilience, self reliance, sense of spiritual belonging and an ability to have a positive life mindset. On the flip side that separateness I felt when younger was the underlying force behind my poor self-esteem which was an enabling factor in the attachment style of relationship I shared with M. No matter the type of grief or loss one experiences or suffers in some way or another, love is at the heart of the felt experience. Even if the loss is as simple as the loss of a job, or perhaps a beloved cat, or friend, a partner, a mother or father, sister or brother, or sadly a child, it is love that binds us, it is love that makes life and death worthwhile. Kubler-Ross (1998) put it very succinctly when she wrote, you should live until you die, no one dies alone, everyone is loved beyond comprehension, everyone is blessed and guided, and the hardest lesson to learn is unconditional love, everything is bearable when there is love, and finally the only thing that lives forever is love (p288). To conclude this essay I would reflect on the importance of a counsellor taking the time to experience and deal with lifes losses and loves. Whether one chooses a particular model or process to assist the journey of self discovery, it is important to understand the underlying concepts of the attachment bonds that are formed over a life span. The bonds we form also bring the love that not only continues but also fluctuates between positive and negative emotional balancing and adjustment.