Influence of the media on politics in the society Research Paper

Influence of the media on politics in the society - Research Paper Example Journalism entails collection of information from the scenes, recording of the information and transfer of the information to the targeted group. Mass media is understood to be an organization of the journalists and communication tools which are used together to convey information in the most effective, efficient and convenient manner. There are various interpretations that are offered to communication and so does the crisis in communication. Crisis communication is understood to be a sub-specialty that is incorporated in the public relations field, and is purposely designed to help in protecting and shielding organizations and individuals who are faced by public challenge to their standing (Ulmer, npag). According to the understanding drawn from some professionals, communication crisis is the assumption or viewpoint of changeable situations that are observed to have a negative threat to the expectations of individuals. This is especially directed to business organizations where the stakeholders are faced by unpredictable situations in the sense that they cannot determine the future of an organization in terms of the financial status or stand. There are various issues that have been confirmed to be influenced by mass media, and these are with inclusion of the public sectors, private sectors and the political systems among others. The cultural and societal expectations from people are also affected by the mass media due to the communication approaches that are used. This results to communication crisis, which negatively alters the performance of people or organizations in a given community. Considering the elements that need to be considered in ensuring that the communication crisis plan is effective, it is essential to consider the content, the mood, the language and the design of the communication approaches that are

K-12 budget cuts in california Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

K-12 budget cuts in california - Research Paper Example The people of the state feel as though their voices should be heard if budget cuts are needed and where would be the best possible place to cut. In the case of California budget cuts in regards to k-12 education this is not so. The majorities of the people are not in favor of the proposed budget cuts and are not afraid to say so. Voices are heard from newspapers, newsreels, high offices and education systems themselves. Why are budget cuts proposed? Where do the deciding factors come from? In who’s best interest? These are the underlying questions to the foundation of this paper. Proposed state budget cuts are looked upon as evils by the people. Budget cuts means jobs lost, jobs lost means hard times, unwanted struggles and hopeful prayers. Budget cuts means some organization that has served the people will not be able to do so any longer in the original capacity. Budget cuts are often times proposed in place of tax increases. Although tax increases would usually only affect t he higher income families. The government relies on the state’s elected leaders to lead during the time of economic downturn and budget cuts. The deciding factors in budget cuts are sometimes based on the efficient use of the remaining and less spending of the variables involved. In the state of California one of the areas involving budget cuts is in education. Specifically covered here will be grades k-12. Education budget cuts mean massive layoffs for teachers among other educational expense loss, such as purchasing of books. The impact and acceptation of the budget is described here in an article from Targeted News Service (2011), Despite positive economic messages surrounding President Obama's recent State of the Union address, America's 14,000 school districts will remain vulnerable for the next half decade. Nationally, forty states currently project budget gaps totaling over $140 billion for the next fiscal year. Even worse, states will have to try to fill the gaps with nearly $40 billion less in federal stimulus funds than they had last year--creating what many officials are calling the "ARRA cliff," the sudden loss of billions of dollars in federal money from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. Looking even further down the road, twenty-four states already face a combined gap of $66 billion for fiscal year 2013. When it comes to schools, these gaps are significant because state dollars account for almost half, 48.3 percent, of K-12 education funding. In California, the budget picture is grim. The state faces ongoing structural budget gaps of over $20 billion a year through 2014, with debt levels currently topping out over $25 billion for this fiscal year. Governor Brown's proposed budget slashes higher education funding by over $1 billion, or nearly 20 percent, and his promise to avoid cuts to K-12 education hinges on a tax extension vote in June. If voters reject the tax extension, school districts could face an additional $4 to $5 bill ion in cuts before classes begin. All of this comes on top of the 14.5 percent hit K-12 funding has taken since 2007. Listed above are the hard facts the state of California is facing. Are the budget cuts necessary because the government failed in its duties or is the state? For either answer there are individuals who have come up with answers on how to prevent future cuts in areas that are desperately needed. The dropout rate is not decreasing, the need for our

Interpersonal communication paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Interpersonal communication paper - Assignment Example This makes the process difficult and complicated no matter how simple it appears to someone who is looking at a situation. Many conflicts arise during communications and the resolution or its becoming worse all depend on how the players act and react during the process. With the simplicity of communication that usually brings people in various complicated situations, many scholars are getting interested to the study of communication and propose concepts about the subject matter, supplement the information with suggestions on understanding and improving verbal and non-verbal communication to improve relationships. For instance, one of the foci of studies is the communication between husband and wife, which is very relevant to today’s world because of the seemingly dying image of marriages which are even more magnified with the news of celebrities marrying today and getting divorced tomorrow. However, saving marriages is not just the only reason for the intensive researches performed and being performed for further studies but also looks into other relationships like employers to their employees, businessmen to their customers, doctors to patients and the list goes on. The point is, communication does not just affect the rich, famous or a chos en few but largely impacts all ages regardless of sex and status and the effect could either be damaging or constructive and no one would like the former. Instead, everyone would like the constructive effect of communication that is why studies are given priority on communication to find what seems to be a secret only a few are able to find. With the rise in the number of researches, people are coming to a better understanding of the process and indeed, knowledge could become a powerful tool to a person if it is used wisely. A lot of people are now encouraged to work further on their communication skills and are trying their best to purposefully make the process a good experience

Economics for Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics for Business - Essay Example This would entail more concern for the poor and redressing those imbalances set off by the market capitalism. The point in the article is about how the rise of the â€Å"social democrats† would lead to a new order in the world. This article would be of interest to anyone concerned about the rise of the sort of market capitalism or the â€Å"neo-liberal† order that prevailed over the last thirty years or so. Given the way in which leading banks around the world collapsed or had to be bailed out for fear of imploding, the article certainly is timely and relevant to our times. Thus, the thesis of the article is about moving away from the old order and building new regulatory mechanisms in place. As Mr. Rudd puts it, â€Å"unfettered capitalism† is not only dangerous but malignant as well. I have chosen this article to review as it fits it with my thinking about the evolution of market economies and the way in which the future forms of capitalism would evolve from the debris of the current economic crisis. And given that Mr. Rudd was elected on a platform of â€Å"social change†, I am interested in pursuing this line of thinking. Many commentators have called the excesses of Wall Street as â€Å"Casino Capitalism† where the players tend to look at investments as a sort of game that yield higher and higher rate of returns without a thought for the risks involved in such an enterprise. The term has stuck as several of the â€Å"Ponzi† schemes have shown how unscrupulous brokers and bankers around the world resorted to an economy of debt and reckless lending practices combined with high risk taking behavior. Though classical economics places a reliance on debt and risk taking to get the profits coming, there are certain norms that are prescribed along with tenets of economic theory. What has happened over the last decade or so is that these tenets of economic theory have been ignored. One of this states that the value of an asset

Netherlands' Political Stability and the Attractiveness of FDI Essay

Netherlands' Political Stability and the Attractiveness of FDI - Essay Example The underlying interest in undertaking FDI operations is to invest in low risk and high return markets and economies. In this regard, political stability and the risks posed by the political system in place in a given market or economy influence FDI across countries. Netherlands is a strong and favourable FDI destination in the European economies. The U.S is a primary foreign direct investor in Netherlands among other countries. On the same note, Netherlands also invests in other countries, thereby undertaking an outward FDI. Individuals, firms, and governments engage in FDI activities around the world, with high sensitivity being accorded to political systems and governance of the specific FDI destinations. This process encompasses strategic decision making, aided by PESTLE (Political, Economic, Sociological, Technological, Legal and Environmental factors) analysis and Porter's five Diamond model. These factors provide the environment of business undertakings in the FDI context, wit h the Diamond model evaluating the competitive advantage of a nation in a given business aspect. The attractiveness of FDI in Netherlands is not only based on the political stability of the country over time, but also on social and economic pillars that promote FDI. These pillars are used in this paper to explain the attractiveness of FDI in Netherlands, but a lot of emphasis is accorded to Netherlands’ political and governance stability. The four attributes of the Diamond model are employed to present Netherlands as a suitable FDI destination, with a significant emphasis on the Netherlands’ political environment. The political aspect of the Netherlands is therefore the central focus of this paper, with regard to FDI attractiveness. Political Environment as a Determinant of FDI FDI destinations are critically scrutinized in a bid to alleviate risk of failure. An economy that is characterized by effective governance systems attracts high levels of inward FDI and encoura ges its investors to engage in outward FDI in similar economies. Such a political environment is business friendly and it is often characterized by low corruption practices and fair and healthy competition in business (Holland Gateway, 2011). Unstable governments drive away inward FDI due to the prevalence of an environment that is highly characterized by investment risks. Other determining factors of FDI include: legal systems (Baltzer, 2008, p.81; Markusen, 2002, p.67), economic context (OECD, 2002a), foreign relations (Breuss, 2002, pg.245-274), infrastructure and technology (Angeloni, Flad and Mongelli, 2007, pg. 367-409) and social and cultural factors (Roland, 2005, Ch. 3; Roland, 2009; Darvas and Szapary, 2008, pg. 44). Attractiveness of FDI in Netherlands Netherlands is an invest destination for many foreign individuals, firms and governments. The United States has for a long time been a major FDI player in Netherlands. In fact, the U.S has at one time accounted for up to 13 .3% of total outbound investment in Netherlands (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2012). This scenario has been accounted for by a fiscal climate that favours high level investments and international orientation that boosts business undertakings between Netherlands and the rest of the world. U.K and Canada joins the U.S to make the top three countries that actively engage in inward FDI in

Ultrasonic Metal Testing Essay Example for Free

Ultrasonic Metal Testing Essay Ultrasonic testing refers to the use of sound energy of high frequency â€Å"to conduct examinations and make measurements (â€Å"Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing†). † This form of inspection may be applied in the detection and evaluation of metal flaws; measurement of dimensions; and classification of materials among other things (â€Å"Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing†). It was in the year 1928 that a famous Soviet scientist by the name of Sergei Y. Sokolov proposed and demonstrated at the V. I. Ulvanov Electrotechnical Institute a â€Å"through-transmission technique† for detecting flaws in metals (Early History of Metal Flaw Detectors). Although necessary technology was nonexistent at the time, Sokolov proposed that this technique could be applied in the detection of irregularities in solids. In Germany during the early 1930s, Sokolov’s proposal was taken seriously enough to begin extensive experimentation on the detection of flaws in metals. O Muhlhauser, in the year 1933, patented a method for the transmission of ultrasonic energy into the solid or metal being tested. This system allowed ultrasonic energy to examine the solid or metal using two transducers (Early History of Metal Flaw Detectors). Ultrasonic metal testing has been useful in industrial applications since the 1940s. Based on the laws of physics governing the spread of sound waves of high frequencies through solids, ultrasonic metal testing helps in the detection of cracks that may be hidden, in addition to porosity, voids and other kinds of â€Å"internal discontinuities† in metals (â€Å"General Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing†). Ceramics, plastics, and composites may be similarly tested using ultrasonic systems. Ultrasonic testing also allows easy measurement of thickness as well analysis of material properties.Most importantly, ultrasonic metal testing is entirely safe and nondestructive (â€Å"General Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing†). References Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing. NDT Resource Center. Retrieved Dec 14, 2007, from http://www. ndt-ed. org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Introduction/description. htm. Early History of Metal Flaw Detectors. Retrieved Dec 14, 2007, from http://www. ob- ultrasound. net/ndt. html. General Introduction to Ultrasonic Testing. Olympus. Retrieved Dec 14, 2007, from http://www. olympusndt. com/en/ndt-tutorials/intro/ut/.

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement

Role of Schedules of Reinforcement To what extent are schedules of reinforcement more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced? Illustrate your answer with basic and applied research examples. I am writing this essay in order to illustrate the role of schedules of reinforcement; basic and applied research examples provide evidence that schedules of reinforcement are more than just rules governing which responses will be reinforced. A schedule of reinforcement is defined as a rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement, those environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will produce reinforcement (Cooper, Heron, Heward, 2007). There are two basic types in a schedule of reinforcement: a continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF schedule) is one in which each occurence of a response is reinforced, and an intermittent reinforcement schedule where each occurence of the response is not reinforced; rather, responses are occasionally or intermittently reinforced (Miltenberger, 2008). Ferster and Skinner (1957) studied various types of intermittent reinforcement schedules and described four basic types in this category: fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval. In a fixed ratio (FR) schedule, a specific or fixed number of responses must occur before the reinforcer is delivered; in a variable ratio (VR) schedule, delivery of a reinforcer is based on the number of responses that occur, but in this case, the number of responses needed for reinforcement varies each time, around an average number; in a fixed interval (FI) schedule, the interval of time is fixed, or stays the same each time; in a variable interval (VI) schedule of reinforcement, the reinforcer is delivered for the first response that occurs after an interval of time has elapsed (Miltenberger, 2008). There are also some variations on the basic intermittent schedules of reinforcement: a) the schedules of differential reinforcement of rates of responding and, b) the progressive schedules of reinforcement. Differential reinforcement provides an intervention for behavior problems associated with rate of response and that means that it is a variation of ratio schedule; delivery of the reinforcer is contingent on responses occuring at a rate either higher than or lower than some predetermined criterion (Cooper, 2007). The reinforcement of responses higher than a predetermined criterion is called differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH); when responses are reinforced only when they are lower than the criterion, the schedule provides differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL). There is also the differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule that provides reinforcement at the end of a predetermined time interval when the number of responses is less than a criterio n that is gradually decreased across time intervals based on the individuals performance (Cooper, 2007). Progessive schedules of reinforcement by contrast, systematically thin each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participants behavior (Cooper, 2007), Progressive ratio (PR) and progressive interval (PI) schedules of reinforcement change schedule requirements using a) arithmetic progressions to add a constant amount to each successive ratio or interval or b) geometric progressions to add successively a constant proportion of the preceding ratio or interval (Lattal Neef, 1996). Additionally, applied behavior analysts combine the elements of continuous reinforcement, the four schedules of reinforcement, differential reinforcement of various rates of responding and extinction to form compound schedules of reinforcement. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement occur when a) two or more contingencies of reinforcement b) operate independently and simultaneously c)for two or more behaviors (Cooper, 2007). Discriminative schedules of reinforcement consist of a) multiple schedules -present two or more basic schedules of reinforrcement in an alterating, usually random, sequence; the basic schedules within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently and a discriminative stimulus is correlated with each basic schedule; the stimulus is present as long as the schedule is in effect- and b) chained schedules -the multiple and chained schedules have two or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and have a discriminative stimulus correlated wi th each independent schedule (Cooper, 2007). Nondiscriminative schedules consist of a) mixed schedules -use an identical procedure to multiple ones but, without discriminative stimuli- and b) tandem schedules -identical to chained schedules, but also without the discriminative stimuli (Cooper, 2007). Now through basic and applied research examples from all types of schedules of reinforcement, it is going to be shown the role of schedules of reinforcement; the schedules of reinforcement play a major role in a behavior change program, and also in the acquisition and maintenance of a behavior. In the study of Kirby and Shields (1972), a systematic measure of changes in academic response rate and accuracy through a more direct approach to academic performance was conducted. The study was designed to measure the combined effects of an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule of immediate praise and immediate correctness feedback on the arithmetic response rate of a seventh- grade student and to measure possible collateral changes in study behavior. The study was divided into four phases: baseline, treatment 1, reversal, treatment 2. Using an adjusting fixed-ratio schedule, delivery of reinforcement was initially given for every two problems completed; then, the experimenter gradually increased the units of work or number of problems completed before delivering reinforcement. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of the fixed-ratio schedule of praise and immediate correctness feedback in increasing the subjects arithmetic response rate and associated attending behavior. When students rate of correct problem solving was increased through systematic reinforcement, incompatible behaviors of non-attending decreased. It was also noted that during reversal, when all praise and immediate correctness feedback was withheld, the subject maintained a much higher level of arithmetic achievement and attending behavior than before treatment 1. The adjusting ratio schedule of reinforcement frequent contact with the student during early ph ases requiring small units of work, it requires no extra effort during later phases when large units of work are assigned. In the study of De Luca and Holborn (1992), the effects of a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement on pedaling a stationary exercise bicycle were examined. A changing-criterion design was used in which each successive criterion was increased over mean performance rate in the previous phase by approximately 15%. The participants were 3 obese and 3 nonobese boys. The experimental phases were: baseline, VR-first subphase (the VR schedule of reinforcement was introduced after a stable baseline had been achieved), VR-second subphase (stability had been achieved in the first subphase), VR-third subphase (stability was achieved for the second subphase), return to baseline and return to VR third subphase. All participants had systematic increases in their rate of pedaling with each VR value, meaning that the larger the variable ratio, the higher the rate of response. The results indicated that the rate of exercise can be increased using a VR schedule of reinforcement. The introduction of the initial VR subphase of the changing-criterion design produced marked increases in the rate of exercise for all subjects. Rasmussen and Oneill (2006), examined the effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of students with emotional-behavioral disorders in a clinical day-treatment classroom setting. The participants were three elementary-aged students and the dependent variable for all 3 participants was the frequency of verbal disruptions. The study employed an ABAB withdrawl design, alternating between baseline and FI conditions -verbal praise and pats on the arm were provided, with a final brief schedule thinning phase for each participant. All participants exhibited variable but relatively high rates during baseline. Implementation of FT schedules resulted in immediate, substantial, and stable decreases for all participants. The results of this study demonstrate the use of FT schedules and their implementation in a day-treatment classroom setting with children with clinically diagnosed emotional or behavioral disorders. These procedures were effective in reducing disruptive verbal behavior and these reductions were maintained while the FI schedules underwent initial thinning. The effectiveness of fixed-time schedules has also been evaluated through data on both appropriate and inappropriate responses. In the study of Roane, Fisher and Sgro (2001), fixed-time schedules were used in order to reduce destructive behavior but also, to increase adaptive behavior. The participant was a 12-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with pervasive developmental disorder and traumatic brain injury. There were two conditions: control condition and FT condition; with the exception of the FT schedule of reinforcement, the FT condition was identical to the control condition. During the FT condition, increases in two adaptive responses were observed, even though neither response was reinforced through direct contingencies. Similarly, decreases in destructive behavior were obtained under the FT schedule. The results suggest that, in addition to suppressing inappropriate behavior, FT schedules may also increase and stabilize adaptive behavior. Austin and Soeda (2008), validated the use of fixed-time reinforcer delivery with typically developing population. A fixed-time teacher attention was used to decrease off-task behavior in two third-grade boys. An ABAB was used with two phases: baseline (the teacher interacted with the boys in her usual manner) and noncontingent reinforcement-NCR (the teacher provided attention on an FT schedule). The findings indicated that NCR was an effective strategy for reducing the off-task behaviors of both boys, as immediate and sustained reductions in the percentage of intervals with off-task behavior were observed. Van Camp, Lerman, Kelley, Contrucci and Vondran (2000), evaluated the efficacy of noncontingent reinforcement with variable interval schedules in reducing problem behavior maintained by social consequences, comparing the effects of VT and FT reinforcement schedules with 2 individuals who had been diagnosed with moderate to severe mental retardation. Baseline and treatment conditions -with FT and VT sessions- were conducted in both participants. Although previous studies on the use of NCR as treatment for problem behavior have primarily examined FT schedules, results of this study indicated that VT schedules were as effective as FT schedules in reducing problem behavior. Carr, Kellum and Chong (2001), examined the effects of fixed-time and variable-time schedules on responding with 2 adults with mental retardation. Multielement and reversal designs were used to compare the effects of FT and VT schedules previously maintained on variable-ratio reinforcement schedules. The target behavior for the first participant was defined as making a penci mark on his name and placing the paper into the receptable. The target behavior for the second participant was defined as picking up a paper clip and dropping it in the receptable. The experimental phases were: baseline, FR 1 reinforcement, VR 3 reinforcement, FT, VT. The results showed that both FT and VT schedules were equally effective in reducing the target behaviors. Wright and Vollmer (2002), used a treatment package that involved an adjusting differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate responding (DRL) schedule, response blocking and prompts in order to reduce rapid eating. The participant was a 17-year-old girl who had been diagnosed with profound mental retardation. The experimental phases consisted of baseline and treatment condition, where an adjusting DRL procedure was introduced, along with blocking and prompts. The DRL intervals were determined by calculating the average IRT from previous sessions. The results showed that the treatment package was effective in increasing the IRTs between each attempted bite of food. The treatment package also resulted in an increase in the negative side-effects (increase in the levels of SIB and tantrums). However, the treatment continued despite these side-effects, which eventually decreased. In the study of Dietz and Repp (1973), a differential reinforcement of diminishing rates (DRD) schedule was used in order to decrease classroom misbehavior. The procedure that was followed was that reinforcement was produced when responding was less than a limit for a period of time, rather than when a response followed a specified period of no responding. Three experiments were conducted. In the first experiment DRD schedule was implemented to reduce the talking-out behavior of one 11-year old boy, classified as trainable mentally retarded (TRM) in a special classroom. The second experiment involved the reduction of talk-outs in a group of ten TRM students in an also special classroom, and the third experiment involved the use of a DRD schedule to reduce the verbal behavior of a group of 15 high school students in a regular class. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of DRD schedules in reducing classroom disruption both in individual and in group behaviors. In addition, the success with both TRM students and with high school students suggests the efficacy of DRD schedules across widely divergent groups. In the present study the use of positive reinforcement suggests also a nonpunitive method of classroom control. Roane, Lerman and Vorndran (2001), tried to examine if the reinforcing stimuli can be differentially effective as response requirements increase by evaluating responding under increasing schedule requirements via progressive-ratio schedules and behavioral economic analyses. In experiment 1 (reinforcer assessment), four individuals with developmental disabilities, who had been referred for the assessment and treatment of severe behavior problems, participated. The findings showed that one stimulus was associated with greater response persistence under increasing schedule requirements for all participants. Results also suggested that progressive schedules allow a relatively expeditious examination of shifts in reinforcer preference or value under increasing schedule requirements. In experiment 2, the correspondence between responding under progressive schedules and levels of destructive behavior under various reinforcement-based treatments was examined in order to evaluate the utility of the reinforcer assessment. Three interventions were selected: noncontingent reinforcement, DRA and DRO. Results indicated that the high-preference stimuli identified via this assessment were more likely to reduce problem behavior or increase adaptive behavior than stimuli identified as less preferred. In summary, results of this study suggest that stimuli identified as similarly preferred via a commonly used preference assessment were differentially effective under increasing schedule requirements. Additionally, stimuli that were more effective under progressive schedules were more likely to produce decreases in problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement. The influence of concurrent reinforcement schedules on behavior change without the use of extinction was examined by Hoch, McComas and Thomson (2002). Two responses were measured: problem behavior maintained by negative reinforcement, and task completion in three children with autism. Moreover, the maintenance of behavior change was evaluated under conditions of increased response requirements and leaner schedules of reinforcement. The results showed that immediate and sustained decreases in problem behavior and increases in task completion occurred when task completion produced both negative reinforcement and access to preferred activities and problem behavior continued to result in negative reinforcement. The findings demonstrated that concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be arranged to decrease negatively reinforced problem behavior and increase an adaptive alternative response without the use of escape extinction. Tiger and Hanley (2004), described a multiple-schedule procedure to reduce ill-timed requests, which involved providing children with two distinct continuous signals that were correlated with periods in which teacher attention was either available or unavailable. Cammilleri, Tiger and Hanley (2008), conducted a study in order to assess the efficacy of a classwide application of the multiple-schedule procedure described by Tiger and Hanley when implemented by teachers during instructional periods in three elementary classrooms. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of a classwide multiple-schedule procedure when implemented by teachers in a private elementary school classroom. Conclusively, schedules of reinforcement are not only rules that govern which responses will be reinforced; they are substantial components of a behavior change program. CRF schedules are used in the acquisition of a behavior -when a person is learning a behavior or engaging in the behavior for the first time. Once the person has acquired or learned the behavior, an intermittent reinforcement schedule is used so that the person continues to engage in the behavior -maintenance of behavior (Miltenberger, 2008). In this way, schedules of reinforcement help in the progression to naturally occurring reinforcement, which is a major goal for most behavior change programs. It was shown that schedules of reinforcement can be applied effectively in different settings, behaviors, populations. They have been used to decrease inappropriate behaviors such as rapid eating (Wright Vollmer, 2002) or classroom misbehavior (Dietz Repp, 1973); to increase appropriate behaviors such as arithmetic response rate and attending behavior (Kirby Shields, 1972). They have also been applied in both typically developing children (e.g. Austin Soeda, 2008), and in children with behavior problems (e.g. Rasmussen ONeill, 2006). Schedules of reinforcement can have great effects in a behavior change program, but it is also very important to know how and when to apply the most appropriate schedule or a combination of them in a specific behavior. References Austin, J. L., Soeda, J. M. (2008). Fixed-time teacher attention to decrease off-task behaviors of typically developing third graders. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 279-283. Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Carr, J. E., Kellum, K. K., Chong, I. M. (2001). The reductive effects of noncontingent reinforcement: Fixed-time versus variable-time schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 505-509. Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. De Luca, R. V., Holborn, S. W. (1992). Effects of a variable-ratio reinforcement schedule with changing criteria on exercise in obese and nonobese boys. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 671-679. Dietz, S. M., Repp, A. C. (1973). Decreasing classroom misbehavior through the use of DRL schedules of reinforcement. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 457-463. Hoch, H., McComas, J. J. and Thomson, A. L., Paone, D. (2002). Concurrent reinforcement schedules: Behavior change and maintenance without extinction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 155-169. Kirby, F. D., Shields, F. (1972). Modification of arithmetic response rate and attending behavior in a seventh-grade student. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 5, 79-84. Lattal, K. A., Neef, N. A. (1996). Recent reinforcement-schedule research and applied behavior analysis. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 29, 213-220. Cited in Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., Heward, W. L. (2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.), Schedules of reinforcement (pp. 304-323). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Rasmussen, K., ONeill, R. E. (2006). The effects of fixed-time reinforcement schedules on problem behavior of children with emotional and behavioral disorders in a day-treatment classroom setting. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 453-457. Roane, H. S., Fisher, W. W., Sgro, G. M. (2001). Effects of a fixed-time schedule on aberrant and adaptive behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 333-336. Roane, H. S., Lerman, D. C. and Vorndran, C. M. (2001). Assessing reinforcers under progressive schedule requirements. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 145-167. Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2004). Developing stimulus control of preschooler mands: An analysis of schedule-correlated and contingency-specifying stimuli. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 37, 517-521. Cited in Cammilleri, A. P., Tiger, J. H., Hanley, G. P. (2008). Developing stimulus control of young childrens requests to teachers: Classwide applications of multiple schedules. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 299-303. Van Camp, C. M., Lerman, D. C., Kelley, M. E., Contrucci, S. A., Vorndran, C. M. (2000). Variable-time reinforcement schedules in the treatment of socially maintained problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 33, 545-557. Wright, C. S., Vollmer, T. R. (2002). Evaluation of a treatment package to reduce rapid eating. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 35, 89-93.